Psybio (Physiological/biological psychology)

Understanding Sensory Systems

Introduction
• Sensory systems are the complex mechanisms that enable us to perceive and
interact with the world around us.
• These systems encompass our five primary senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell,
and touch, as well as lesser-known senses like proprioception and the
vestibular sense.

Why do you think that understanding sensory systems is crucial?

Understanding our senses is of paramount importance for several reasons:

• Perception of the World
• Safety and Survival
• Health and Well-being
• Neuroscience and Psychology
• Design and Innovation
• Cultural and Social Interaction
• Educational and Learning Processes
• Aging and Sensory Changes
Vision (sight)
Function:
• the sense of sight, allowing us to detect and interpret light and visual stimuli.
• It is primarily responsible for providing information about the shape, color, size,
and movement of objects.

Anatomy:
• It is the primary organ for vision, with the cornea, lens, and retina working
together to focus light on the retina's light-sensitive cells, which then transmit
visual information to the brain via the optic nerve.

Hearing (audition)
Function:
• the sense of sound perception.
• It enables us to detect and interpret vibrations and pressure waves in the air as
sound.
• It helps us communicate, navigate our environment, and enjoy music and other
auditory experiences.

Anatomy:
• It is the primary organ for hearing, comprising the outer ear, middle ear, and
inner ear.
• The outer ear collects sound waves, the middle ear amplifies and transmits them,
and the inner ear contains sensory cells that convert sound vibrations into
electrical signals sent to the brain.
Taste (Gustation)
Function:
• the sense of flavor perception, allowing us to distinguish between different tastes
such as sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami.
• helps us evaluate the nutritional content and safety of the foods we consume.

Anatomy:
• Taste buds are the primary structures for taste perception and are located on the
tongue, palate, and other parts of the mouth.
• Taste receptors within taste buds send signals to the brain to interpret flavors.

Smell (Olfaction)
Function:
• the sense of odor perception.
• It enables us to detect and identify a wide range of scents and odors in our
environment.
• plays a significant role in our memory, emotion, and our ability to appreciate
aromas.

Anatomy:
• Olfactory receptors are specialized nerve cells located in the nasal cavity.
• These receptors can detect various odor molecules in the air and transmit the
information to the brain for interpretation.
Touch (Tactile Sense)
Function:
• The sense of touch encompasses various tactile sensations, including pressure,
temperature, texture, and pain.
• provides information about the physical properties of objects, temperature, and
physical contact with other individuals or surfaces.

Anatomy:
• Touch receptors are found throughout the skin and other parts of the body.
• These receptors can be sensitive to various aspects of touch, including fine touch
(e.g., fingertips), pressure (e.g., palms), temperature (e.g., heat or cold), and pain
(nociceptors).

Proprioception
Function:
• Proprioception, often referred to as the "sixth sense," is the sense of body
position and movement.
• It enables us to have an innate awareness of the position, orientation, and
movement of our body parts without needing to visually observe them.
• plays a crucial role in coordinating movements, maintaining balance, and
controlling posture.

Anatomy:
• Proprioceptive receptors are primarily located in the muscles, tendons, and joints.
• They provide constant feedback to the brain about the relative positions of body
parts and the amount of force being exerted during movement.
Balance (Vestibular Sense)
Function:
• The vestibular sense, related to the inner ear's vestibular system, is responsible
for detecting changes in head position and motion.
• It plays a fundamental role in maintaining balance and spatial orientation.
• This sense allows us to stand, walk, and perform coordinated movements
without falling over.

Anatomy:
• The vestibular system consists of fluid-filled canals and structures within the
inner ear.
• These structures contain tiny hair cells that detect movement and send signals
to the brain to help us maintain balance.

How the Brain processes Sensory Information from Different Senses

Sensory Receptors:
• Sensory receptors are specialized cells or structures located in various parts of
the body, such as the eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue.
• These receptors detect specific sensory stimuli, such as light, sound, touch,
taste, and smell.
How the Brain processes Sensory Information from Different Senses

Transduction:
• When sensory receptors are stimulated, they transduce the physical stimuli (e.g.,
light waves, pressure, chemicals) into electrical signals or action potentials that
the brain can understand.

Transmission to the Brain:

• The electrical signals generated by sensory receptors are transmitted to the
central nervous system (CNS) through dedicated neural pathways.
• For example, visual information is carried to the brain via the optic nerve, while
auditory information travels through the auditory nerve.

Sensory Processing Areas:

• In the brain, specific sensory processing areas are responsible for the initial
analysis and interpretation of sensory information.
• These areas include:
+ Primary Visual Cortex (V1): Processes visual information.
+ Primary Auditory Cortex: Processes auditory information.
+ Primary Somatosensory Cortex: Processes tactile information.
+ Olfactory Bulb: Processes olfactory information.
+ Gustatory Cortex: Processes taste information.
Multisensory Integration:
• While initial sensory processing occurs in separate areas, the brain also
possesses multisensory integration areas where information from different
senses comes together and is combined.
• One example is the superior colliculus, which plays a role in integrating visual,
auditory, and somatosensory information to guide eye and head movements.

Cross-Modal Interaction:
• Sensory information from different modalities often interacts and influences one
another.
• For instance, visual and auditory cues can provide complementary information
for localization or object recognition.
• Cross-modal interactions can enhance our perceptual experiences and improve
our ability to navigate and understand the environment.

Attention and Perceptual Binding:

• Attentional mechanisms play a crucial role in the selection of sensory input.
• The brain prioritizes certain sensory inputs over others based on the task or
context.
• Perceptual binding is the process of combining different sensory attributes into a
coherent percept.
• For example, the brain integrates the color, shape, and texture of an object to
perceive it as a whole.
Top-Down Processing:
• Expectations, context, and cognitive factors also influence how sensory
information is processed.
• Top-down processing occurs when higher-order cognitive functions, such as
memory and past experiences, affect the interpretation of sensory data.

Conscious Perception:
• Ultimately, the brain constructs a conscious perception that combines and
interprets sensory information, allowing us to perceive and make sense of the
world around us.

Plasticity and Learning:

• The brain's ability to adapt and reorganize based on sensory experience is called
neuroplasticity.
• Learning and exposure to sensory information can lead to changes in the brain's
sensory processing pathways, influencing perception and behavior.

Sensory Integration
• Also known as sensory processing
• Is the complex neurological process by which the brain organizes and interprets
sensory information from the environment and the body to create a unified and
meaningful perceptual experience.
Common Sensory Disorders

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

• Individuals with ASD may exhibit sensory sensitivities or sensory- seeking
behaviors.
• They might be hypersensitive to certain sensory inputs, such as light, sound, or
touch, which can lead to discomfort and distress.

Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD)

• SPD is characterized by difficulties in processing and responding to sensory
information.
• It can manifest as sensory sensitivities, sensory- seeking behaviors, or sensory
underresponsiveness.
• SPD can affect any or all of the senses.

Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)

• APD is a condition in which the brain has difficulty processing and interpreting
auditory information.
• Individuals with APD may struggle to understand spoken language, particularly in
noisy environments.

Visual Processing Disorder

• Visual processing disorders affect the interpretation of visual information.
• This can lead to difficulties in recognizing shapes, patterns, and objects, as well
as challenges with reading and visual memory.
Tactile Defensiveness
• Tactile defensiveness is characterized by extreme sensitivity to touch.
• Individuals may react strongly to tactile sensations and find certain textures,
clothing, or physical contact uncomfortable or distressing.

Vestibular Disorders
• Vestibular disorders affect the balance and spatial orientation system.
• Conditions like benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV) and Meniere's
disease can lead to dizziness, vertigo, and imbalance.

Color Vision Deficiency (Color Blindness)

• Color blindness is a condition in which individuals have difficulty distinguishing
certain colors or cannot perceive them at all.
• It is typically due to genetic factors and affects the perception of red and green
colors.

Anosmia
• Anosmia is the loss of the sense of smell. It can result from various causes,
including head injuries, infections, or sinus issues.
• Anosmia affects an individual's ability to detect and identify odors.

Age-Related Sensory Changes

• As individuals age, sensory systems may undergo changes.
• This includes presbycusis (age-related hearing loss), presbyopia (age-related
changes in vision), and decreased sensitivity to taste and smell.
Hearing Loss
• Hearing loss can result from a variety of causes, including genetics, exposure to
loud noise, infections, and aging.
• It can range from mild to profound and affect an individual's ability to hear and
communicate.

Taste Disorders (Dysgeusia)

• Taste disorders can lead to an altered sense of taste, with individuals perceiving
an unpleasant or metallic taste in their mouth.
• These disorders can be related to medications, medical conditions, or neurological
issues.

Chronic Pain Syndromes

• Conditions like fibromyalgia and complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) can
lead to heightened sensory sensitivity, causing individuals to experience pain with
less stimulation or touch.

How Do These Disorders Affect Individuals

• Discomfort and Distress: Individuals with sensory disorders often experience

discomfort or distress when exposed to sensory stimuli that trigger their
sensitivities. This discomfort can manifest as physical pain, anxiety, frustration,
or irritability.
• Overwhelm: Sensory sensitivities can lead to sensory overload, where
individuals become overwhelmed by excessive sensory input. This can make it
challenging to focus, concentrate, or participate in daily activities.
• Challengesin Social Interaction: Sensorysensitivitiescanaffect an individual's
ability to engage in social interactions. For example, individuals with autism
spectrum disorder (ASD) may find crowded or noisy social situations
overwhelming and may avoid them.
• Communication Difficulties: Disorders like auditory processing disorder (APD)
can impact an individual's ability to understand and process spoken language,
which can affect communication and relationships.
• Learning Challenges: Sensory disorders, particularly those that affect visual
or auditory processing, can affect an individual's ability to learn and perform well
in educational settings.
• Impaired Safety: Sensory processing issues can compromise safety. For
instance, individuals with vestibular disorders may experience balance problems,
increasing their risk of falls and injuries.
• Emotional Impact: Living with sensory disorders can lead to emotional
consequences, such as frustration, anxiety, low self- esteem, and a sense of
isolation.
• Impact on Daily Living: Everyday activities like dressing, grooming, eating, and
participating in recreational activities may be affected. For instance, tactile
defensiveness can make wearing certain clothing or participating in physical
activities uncomfortable.
• Limitations in Career and Life Choices: Some sensory disorders may limit an
individual's choice of careers or hobbies. For example, color blindness may
restrict certain career options, while hearing loss can affect an individual's ability
to work in noisy environments.
• Loss of Independence: Sensory disorders that develop later in life, such as
age-related sensory changes, can impact an individual's independence and quality
of life. Difficulty hearing, seeing, or maintaining balance can make daily tasks
more challenging.
• Medical and Psychological Consequences: Sensory disorders can lead to
medical consequences when they affect an individual's ability to detect danger or
changes in their environment. Additionally, the emotional and psychological
impact of living with sensory disorders may lead to mental health issues such as
anxiety or depression.
• Challenges for Caregivers and Family: Sensory disorders can also have an
impact on caregivers and family members who may need to adapt and provide
support to the affected individual.

Critical Periods for Sensory Development

Visual Development
• Critical Period: Birth to Around 7-8 Months
• During this period, the visual system undergoes significant development.
• Infants learn to focus their eyes, track moving objects, and develop binocular
vision, which is essential for depth perception.
• Visual stimulation, such as exposure to patterns, faces, and contrasting colors, is
crucial during this time.
Auditory Development
• Critical Period: Prenatal to the First Year of Life
• Auditory development begins in the womb, and infants are born with the ability to
hear.
• During the first year of life, the brain is highly receptive to auditory input.
• This is the time when infants learn to recognize and differentiate between speech
sounds and environmental sounds.

Language Development
• Critical Period: Birth to Around 7 Years
• While language development extends throughout childhood, there are sensitive
periods during which children are especially adept at acquiring language.
• Exposure to a rich language environment and interaction with caregivers is
critical for language development during these early years.

Taste and Smell

• Critical Period: Early Infancy
• Infants have well-developed taste and smell receptors from birth.
• Their preferences for different tastes and smells are shaped during the early
months of life.
• Early experiences with a variety of tastes can influence food preferences and
eating habits.
Touch and Tactile Sensation
• Critical Period: Prenatal to Infancy
• The sense of touch begins developing before birth.
• Infants explore their environment through touch and tactile experiences.
• Skin-to-skin contact, gentle handling, and exposure to various textures are
essential for tactile development during the first year.

Vestibular and Proprioceptive Development:

• Critical Period: Infancy to Toddlerhood
• The vestibular and proprioceptive systems, responsible for balance, body
awareness, and motor coordination, undergo significant development during
infancy and toddlerhood.
• Activities that involve movement and spatial exploration are important during this
time.

Assistive Technologies and Techniques for Sensory Adaptation

Cochlear Implants
• Cochlear implants are surgically implanted devices designed to help individuals
with severe hearing loss or deafness regain a sense of hearing.
• They work by converting sound into electrical signals that directly stimulate the
auditory nerve, bypassing damaged parts of the ear.
HearingAids
• Hearing aids are amplification devices that help individuals with hearing loss by
making sounds louder and more accessible.
• They are especially beneficial for people with mild to moderate hearing impairment.

Braille
• Braille is a tactile writing system that allows blind individuals to read and write
using raised dots.
• Braille books, displays, and electronic devices equipped with refreshable braille
displays enable blind individuals to access written content.

Screen Readers
• Screen reading software converts text displayed on a computer screen into
synthesized speech or braille output.
• It enables blind or visually impaired individuals to access digital content, navigate
the internet, and use computers and mobile devices.

Sign Language
• Sign languages, such as American Sign Language (ASL) and British Sign
Language (BSL), provide a visual and gestural means of communication for deaf
individuals.
• Learning and using sign language facilitate communication within the deaf
community.
Tactile Communication Devices
• Some devices, such as tactile sign language interpreters, haptic communication
devices, and braille notetakers, enable tactile communication for individuals who
are deaf-blind, allowing them to communicate via touch.

Homeostasis
How does the human body regulate temperature, thirst, and hunger?

• The human body works to maintain an optimal internal temperature of around

98.6°F (37°C).
• When external temperatures rise, the body activates mechanisms such as
sweating to cool down.
• Conversely, in colder environments, the body initiates shivering to generate heat
and maintain its temperature.

Homeostasis
• The tendency to resist change in order to maintain a stable, relatively constant
internal environment
• It is the inclination to hold out a body variable (e.g.,temp, fluid volume, salt
content, etc.) within a fixed range

Important variables within the body:

bloodsugar, fluidbalance, body temperature, oxygen levels, blood pressure, pH

• These variables must stay within certain ranges.

• Changes in the external environment can cause these variables to change.
Components of a homeostatic control system:

The Hypothalamus
• Part of the brain
• Often serves as the co-ordinating centre: Receives messages from monitors
• Initiates a hormonal/nervous response

Dynamic equilibrium
• Homeostasis is also called dynamic equilibrium:
• Conditions do fluctuate, but within an acceptable range

Maintaining Homeostasis
• Biological systems like those of your body are constantly being pushed away from
their balance points.
• For instance, when you exercise, your muscles increase heat production, nudging
your body temperature upward.
• Similarly, when you drink a glass of fruit juice, your blood glucose goes up.
How is dynamic equilibrium maintained?

Feedback systems

Negative feedback
• Negative feedback: Response triggered by changed conditions serves to reverse
the change
• E.g., Body temperature increases > Skin blood vessels dilate > Body temperature
decreases

Positive feedback
• Positivefeedback:The response triggered by changing conditions serves to move
the variable even further away from its steady state
• E.g., uterine contractions are stimulated by oxytocin > baby moves towards
cervix > more oxytocin is released

Thermoregulation
Maintaining Body Temperature

Body temperature
Average human body temperature: 37°C
• Core body temperature is slightly higher
• Interindividual variation
Thermoregulation
• Thermoregulation: The maintenance of body temperatures within a range that
enables cells to function effectively
• Recall: Enzymes have optimal temperatures
• High temperatures can denature proteins

We have two kinds of mechanisms to control body temperature:

• Behavioural: putting more clothes or taking them off, cuddling with other people
or animals or other warm objects, increasing or decreasing activity.
• Physiological: when hot, we sweat. (Other animal can also pant or lick
themselves). When cold, we shiver, decreasing blood flow in the skin.

Types of temperature stress

Heat stress
Response to Heat Stress
• Co-ordinating centre is the hypothalamus

Responses:
• Skin blood vessels will dilate
• Sweat glands will produce perspiration
• Both responses serve to lower body temperature
• Return to normal range
Cold stress

Response to Cold Stress

• Co-ordinating centre is the hypothalamus

Responses:
• Skin blood vessels will constrict
• Skeletal muscle will contract rapidly (shivering), increasing metabolism
• Smooth muscle around hair follicles will contract, producing goosebumps
• Responses serve to raise body temperature
• Return to normal range

Prolonged exposure to cold stress

• May cause an increase in the rate of metabolism
• Special fat cells called “brown fat”
+ Particularly important for babies

Hypothermia: Occurs when core body temperature drops below normal range.
• Usually results in coma, then death

Psychogenic Fever (Neurogenic Fever)

• A stress-related, psychosomatic disease especially seen in young women
• Some patients develop extremely high core body temperature (Tc) (up to 41°C)
when they are exposed to emotional events, whereas others show persistent low-
grade high Tc (37–38°C) during situations of chronic stress
• “Psychologicalstress-inducedhyperthermia”
Thirst
• 70% of our body is water.In the case of dehydration the body has several
autonomic responses to control its homeostasis, like producing more concentrated
urine and decreasing sweating.

Two types of thirst are:

• Osmotic thirst, which is caused by changed concentrations (eating salty things)
• Hypovolemic thirst, (referring to low volume) which is caused by the loss of
water (e.g. excessive bleeding or sweating)

Osmoregulation
• Osmoregulation strives to maintain the right amount of water and electrolytes
inside and outside cells in the body
• In this process, the kidneys are responsible for getting rid of any excess fluid,
waste, or electrolytes.
• Osmoregulation also affects blood pressure

Hunger
• Animals have different eating habits.
• Some eat a lot occasionally, some only what they need at the time. Habits of
humans are somewhere in between the extremes.
• The digestive system works to break the food down into a form that cells can use.
• The enzymes in the mouth start to break down carbohydrates, food goes to the
esophagus and stomach where the enzymes in the stomach start to break down
proteins, then food goes to the small intestine where the enzymes break
carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
Eating Disorders
• Nowadays, we have more food than we had ever before and a lot of people are
overweight.
• Therefore, much research is conducted into why some people become obese and
others do not.
• People used to be afraid of not getting enough food, but nowadays we are afraid
to be obese.
• Researchers wonder how it’s possible that two people, who have access to the
same amount of food, differ in weight.

Anorexia Nervosa (AN)

• Restriction of energy in take relative to requirements,leading to a significantly low
body weight in the context of age, sex, developmental trajectory, and physical
health.
• Significantly low weight is defined as a weight that is less than minimally normal
or, for children and adolescents, less than that minimally expected.
• Intense fear of gaining weight or of becoming fat, or persistent behaviour that
interferes with weight gain, even though at a significantly low weight.
• Disturbance in the way in which one’s body weight or shape is experienced, undue
influence of body weight or shape on self- evaluation, or persistent lack of
recognition of the seriousness of the current low body weight.
Bulimia Nervosa (BN)
• Eating, in a discrete period of time (e.g., within any 2-hour period), an amount of
food that is definitely larger than what most individuals would eat in a similar
period of time under similar circumstances.
• A sense of lack of control over eating during the episode (e.g., a feeling that one
cannot stop eating or control what or how much one is eating).
• Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behaviours in order to prevent weight
gain, such as self-induced vomiting; misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or other
medications; fasting; or excessive exercise.
• The binge eating and inappropriate compensatory behaviours both occur, on
average, at least once a week for 3 months.
• Self-evaluation is unduly influenced by body shape and weight.
• The disturbance does not occur exclusively during episodes of anorexia nervosa.

Binge Eating Disorder (BED)

• Recurrent episodes of binge eating. An episode of binge eating is characterized
by both of the following:
• Eating, in a discrete period of time (e.g., within any 2-hour period), an amount of
food that is definitely larger than what most people would eat in a similar period
of time under similar circumstances.
• A sense of lack of control over eating during the episode (e.g., a feeling that one
cannot stop eating or control what one is eating).
• The binge-eating episodes are associated with three (or more) of the following:
+ Eating much more rapidly than normal.
+ Eating until feeling uncomfortably full.
+ Eating large amounts of food when not feeling physically hungry.
+ Eating alone because of feeling embarrassed by how much one is eating.
+ Feeling disgusted with one self, depressed, or very guilty afterward.

Reproductive Behaviors
Sex and Hormones
• During the early stages of prenatal development, both men and women have a set
of channels of Müller (this will eventually become female internal structures) and
channels of Wolff (this will eventually become male internal structures).
• They are sometimes also called Wolfferian ducts and Müllerian ducts
• Sexual reproduction between two individuals increases variation in the gene pool.
• Variation in the gene pool of a species enables quickly evolutionary adaptions to
change in environment.
• A hormone is a chemical substance that is distributed by glands and that makes
is way through our blood to reach other organs and influences our functioning. A
gland that produces a hormone is called an endocrine gland.

Physiological Mechanisms of Sexual Behavior and Motivation

• Hypothalamus
• Plays an important role in motivated behaviors, and sex is no exception
• Lesions to an area of the hypothalamus called the medial preoptic area
completely disrupt a male rat’s ability to engage in sexual behavior
• Medial preoptic lesions do not change how hard a male rat is willing to work
to gain access to a sexually receptive female
• A male rat that cannot engage in sexual behavior still seeks receptive females,
suggesting that the ability to engage in sexual behavior and the motivation to do
so are mediated by different systems in the brain

Steroid Hormones
• Steroid hormones a re derivatives of cholesterol
• They have several effects:
• Cause rapid effects by binding to the membrane
• Activate certain proteins
• Either activate or inactivate certain genes by binding to chromosomes

What else?
Positive Effects
• Anabolic steroids are a chemical derivative of testosterone, the "male sex
hormone." Properly used, anabolic steroids can aid in the treatment of blood
disorders, connective tissue disease, some cancers, intractable arthritis, some
sexual dysfunctions and other serious illnesses.

Negative Effects
• Anabolic steroids can cause severe, long-lasting, and in some cases, irreversible
damage. They can lead to early heart attacks, strokes, liver tumors, kidney
failure, and psychiatric problems. In addition, stopping steroid use can cause
depression, often leading to resumption of use.
Sex Hormones
• The sex hormones are also steroids, but they are somewhat special
They can be divided into three categories:
• Androgens , or so-called male hormones (testosterone)
• Estrogens , so-called female hormones
• Progesterone , also a female hormone. Secreted during pregnancy. It prepares
the uterus for pregnancy and preserves the pregnancy

Effects of Sex Hormones

The sex hormones have two kinds of effects:
Organizing effects
• Occur mostly at sensitive stages of development
• Influence whether the body will develop male or female characteristics: they take
place before birth.
• Activating effect
• Occur at any time of life
• Refer to temporary activations caused by a hormone: can take place any time.

Organizing Effects of Sex Hormones

• Hormones such as testosterone and estrogen have organizing effects on
behaviors and cognitive patterns that are often associated with gender
differences.
• These effects can influence various aspects of behavior, including aggression,
spatial abilities, and social behaviors.
• The presence or absence of certain hormones during critical developmental
periods can affect reproductive functions and fertility in adulthood.
• For instance, disruptions in hormonal exposure during fetal development may
impact future fertility and reproductive health.

Activating Effects of Sex Hormones

Sex and Hormones

Sex hormones have been shown to influence intellectual performance in specific
domains:
• Females typically do better in most school subjects than men, except for math
and science
• Boys perform better at mental rotation tasks and line orientation tasks
Performtance on these tasks most likely is attributed to orlganizational effects

Men excel in tasks involving spatial reasoning, but performance depends on

effectiveness of directional strategy.
• Men are more likely to use directional north, south, etc.) orientations to navigate.
• Women are more likely to use landmarks
Evolutionary explanations suggest that differences exist because the males of many
species travel over
• Humans are less dependent on current sex hormones than other species but
change can increase or decrease sexual arousal
• For males, sexual excitement is generally highest when testosterone levels are
highest
• The hormone oxytocin contributes to sexual pleasure
• The body releases enormous amounts of oxytocin during orgasm

Variations in Sexual Behavior

• People vary considerably in their frequency of sexual activity, preferred types of
sexual activity, and sexual orientation. Because sexual activity occurs mostly in
private, most of us are not aware of how much diversity exists .

Why are men more likely to be interested in brief sexual relationships with many
partners?

• According to evolutionary psychology, men may have evolved with a tendency

toward seeking multiple partners as a reproductive strategy. This theory
suggests that men, due to their ability to produce a high number of sperm and a
lower biological cost for mating, might have developed a predisposition toward
pursuing a variety of partners to maximize their chances of passing on their
genes.
Gender Differences in Sexual Behavior
• Men are more likely to seek multiple sex partners, especially for short - term
encounters
• Women are more likely to be concerned about a mate’s earning potential; men
are more likely to be concerned about a mate’s youth
• Men usually show greater jealousy at indications of sexual infidelity
• Men are interested in brief sexual relationships with multiple partners because
such strategy increases the likelihood of his genes being passed along to the next
generation
• Research has suggested that women can gain from having multiple sexual
partners
• Multiple mates increases resources available to her child and herself
• No direct evidence suggests that specific genes influences whether people prefer
single or multiple mates

Variations in Sexual Behavior

• Both men and women prefer a mate that is healthy, intelligent, honest, and
physically attractive
• In almost all cultures, women prefer mates who are likely to be good providers
• Evolutionary explanations suggest that choosing a father who is likely to be a
good provider aids the woman while she is pregnant or caring for a small child
• Men tend to prefer a young partner
• Evolutionary explanations suggest that this preference exists because younger
women are more likely to be fertile than older women
• Men remain fertile well into old age so preference for a young mate for women is
not as pronounce
Gender Identity and Gender Differentiated Behaviors
• Gender Identity refers to how we identify sexually and what we call ourselves
• Biological differences are generally referred to as “sex differences”
• Differences that result from people’s thoughts about themselves as male or
female are referred to as “gender differences”
• Most people have a gender identity that matches their external appearances
• Some people have a gender identity that is opposite their biological sex
• Psychologists and researchers once believed that gender identity was learned
and more a product of rearing and experience
• Current evidence strongly suggests that biological factors, especially prenatal
hormones, play a large role in gender identity

Biological Sex
• Refers to the physiological characteristics that define male and female bodies. This
typically includes chromosomal, hormonal, and anatomical differences.
• Biological sex is often categorized as male, female, or intersex, based on
characteristics such as chromosomes (XX for females, XY for males), reproductive
organs, and secondary sex characteristics (like breast development or facial hair).

Gender Identity
• Refers to an individual's deeply-felt sense of being male, female, a blend of both,
or neither. It's how one perceives oneself and can differ from the sex assigned at
birth.
• Gender identity is a deeply personal experience and may or may not align with
societal expectations based on biological sex. Some people may identify as
transgender, non-binary, genderqueer, etc., describing diverse ways of
experiencing and expressing gender.
High Risk Sexual Behavior in the Context of Substance Abuse
• Sexual behavior encompasses all activities which gratify an individual’s sexual
needs.
• Sexual behaviors have been studied in the context of sexual practices, sexual
relationships, reproductive health, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and
contraception.
• While sexual behavior and expression of sexuality are normal phenomena, the
context in which sexual behavior is expressed may make the behavior abnormal or
risky.
• While literature has studied variety of risky behaviors, there is speculation about
the definition of “high-risk sexual behavior (HRSB).” Risky sexual behavior (which
may be equated with the term “high risk sexual behavior”) has been defined by
researchers as sexual activities which expose the person to risk of contracting
STIs including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), thus affecting their health.
Emotions
• Are complex psychological states that involve a combination of subjective
experiences, physiological responses, expressive behaviors, and cognitive reactions
• Play a fundamental role in our daily lives, influencing decision-making, social
interactions, and overall well- being

Basic Emotions

Cognitive Appraisal
• The cognitive interpretations that accompany emotions
• Allow us to experience a much larger and more complex set of secondary
emotions
Significance

The Role of the Brain in Emotional Processing

Key Brain Regions:
• Limbic System: Often referred to as the emotional center of the brain, the limbic
system comprises structures like the hippocampus, hypothalamus, and amygdala,
crucial in emotional regulation and memory.
• Amygdala: This almond-shaped structure within the limbic system is central in
processing emotional responses, particularly fear and pleasure.
• Prefrontal Cortex: Responsible for higher-order cognitive functions, the
prefrontal cortex, especially its ventromedial area, aids in emotional regulation and
decision-making.
Neurotransmitters and Hormones Associated with Emotions

Physical Indicators of Emotional States

• Emotions often manifest through observable physiological changes in the body,
termed as biological markers.
• These markers offer insights into an individual's emotional state.

Examples of Biological Markers

• Heart Rate Variability (HRV): Reflects changes in the time intervals between
heartbeats. Increased HRV is associated with emotional regulation and
adaptability.
• Skin Conductance: Also known as Galvanic Skin Response (GSR), measures
changes in the skin's electrical conductivity due to sweating, indicating emotional
arousal.
• Facial Expressions: Non-verbal cues such as smiles, frowns, or raised
eyebrows, which are indicative of various emotional states.

Impact of Emotions on the Body

• Different emotions such as stress, happiness, fear, and others can significantly
impact the body's physiological responses.
Brief Overview of Different Theories of Emotions

James-Lange Theory
• Proposed by William James and Carl
Lange, this theory suggests that
emotions arise as a result of
physiological responses to stimuli.
• It posits that the perception of bodily
changes triggers emotional experiences.

Cannon-Bard Theory
• Developed by Walter Cannon and Philip
Bard, this theory contends that
emotions and physiological responses
occur simultaneously, rather than one
causing the other.
• It asserts that the thalamus triggers
both emotional and physiological
responses independently.
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory
• Proposed by Stanley Schachter and
Jerome Singer, this theory combines
elements of both physiological arousal
and cognitive appraisal.
• It suggests that emotions are determined
by both physiological arousal and the
interpretation of that arousal based on
the surrounding context or environment.

Facial Feedback Theory

• States that our facial expressions affect
our emotions.
• If the facial- feedback hypothesis is
correct, then not only do we smile when
we feel happy, but smiling can make us
feel happy, too.

Explanation of How These Theories Relate to Biological Responses

• All these theories provide different perspectives on the relationship between
physiological responses and emotional experiences.
• They contribute to the understanding of how biological responses such as
changes in bodily functions, neural activation, and chemical processes are linked
to the experience and expression of emotions.
• These theories offer insights into the complex interplay between physiological
reactions and cognitive processes in shaping emotional experiences, highlighting
the role of the body and brain in emotional responses.
Biological Explanations of Mental Disorders
and Psychopharmacology
Basics of Mental Disorders
• Mental disorders refer to conditions characterized by abnormal thoughts,
emotions, or behaviors causing distress or impairment.
Biological Foundations of
Mental Disorders
• Genetic Predispositions
• Neurobiological Factors
• Intricate interplay among
genetics, neurobiology, and
environmental factors

Role of Neurotransmitters
Psychopharmacology
• Psychopharmacology is a specialized field within neuroscience and psychiatry
that focuses on the study of how drugs affect mood, behavior, cognition, and
mental processes.
• It explores the use of pharmacological agents to treat various mental health
conditions by targeting neurotransmitter systems and brain function.

Types of Drugs in Psychopharmacology

Antidepressants
• These drugs are primarily prescribed to alleviate symptoms of depression and
certain anxiety disorders
• They work by modulating neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine,
and dopamine
• Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin- norepinephrine
reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), and monoamine
oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are examples of different classes of antidepressants.
Antipsychotics
• Also known as neuroleptics, antipsychotic medications are used to manage
symptoms of psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
• They primarily target dopamine receptors in the brain to reduce hallucinations,
delusions, and other symptoms.
• Typical antipsychotics (first-generation) and atypical antipsychotics (second-
generation) are the two main classes of these medications.

Anxiolytics
• These drugs are prescribed to alleviate symptoms of anxiety disorders and help
individuals manage anxiety
• Anxiolytics, commonly benzodiazepines, enhance the effects of a
neurotransmitter called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain, resulting
in calming effects
• However, due to their potential for tolerance, dependence, and abuse, they are
typically used for short-term relief or in specific situations
Ethical Considerations in Psychopharmacology
• Informed Consent
• Off - Label Use
• Overmedication and Polypharmacy
• Importance of Informed Decision-Making
• Weighing Risks vs. Benefits
• Long-Term Effects and Monitoring

Recent Advancements in Understanding the Biological Basis of Mental

Disorders
Genomics and Neurobiology
• Recent research has made significant strides in understanding the genetic
underpinnings of mental disorders. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and
advancements in genetic sequencing techniques have identified specific genetic
variations associated with various mental health conditions, shedding light on their
biological mechanisms.

Neuroimaging and Brain Connectivity

• Advancements in neuroimaging technologies, such as functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), have provided
insights into altered brain connectivity patterns and structural abnormalities
associated with different mental disorders.
• Researchers are gaining a deeper understanding of how these alterations
contribute to the pathophysiology of these conditions.
Future Treatments and Emerging Trends in Psychopharmacology

Precision Medicine and Personalized Treatments

• The future of psychopharmacology is moving toward personalized medicine.
With advancements in genetic profiling and biomarker research, there's a
growing emphasis on tailoring treatments to individual genetic and biological
profiles. This approach aims to optimize treatment efficacy while minimizing
adverse effects.

Novel Drug Targets

• Ongoing research is exploring novel drug targets beyond traditional
neurotransmitter systems.
• For instance, investigations into glutamate, neuropeptides, neuroinflammation,
and neurotrophic factors present potential avenues for developing innovative
medications with distinct mechanisms of action.

Challenges and Considerations

• While these advancements hold promise, challenges such as treatment
accessibility, affordability, ethical considerations, and the translation of research
findings into clinical practice need careful attention.