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Tutorial 4.1
How does the central nervous system work?
What are the different areas in the brain?
What are the neurons?

How does the brain send information to the rest of the body?
How is information from the body send back to the brain?

BRAIN AND BODY

The body uses two systems to communicate: the nervous system and the endocrine
(hormonal) system. The nervous system:

The nervous system is composed of 2 division:

 The central nervous system (CNS) is the division of the nervous system located within
the skull and spine.
It is composed of two divisions: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is located in the
skull and the spinal cord in the spine.

 The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the division of the nervous system located
outside the skull and spine. It is composed of two divisions:
1. The somatic nervous system (SNS) and
2. The automatic nervous system (ANS).

1. The somatic nervous system interacts with the external environment, controls voluntary
muscles, and convey sensory information to the CNS. It is conscious and composed of:
-The afferent nerves which carry sensory signals (From sense to brain) from skin, skeleton
muscles, joint, eyes, ears and so on to the central nervous system. It brings information into
a structure.
-The efferent nerves carry motor signals (From brain to muscles) from the central nervous
system to the skeletal muscles. It sends away information from the structure.

2. The automatic nervous system regulates the body’s internal environment, controls
involuntary muscles. It is unconscious and it is composed of:
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-The afferent nerves that carry sensory signals from internal organs to the central nervous
system.
-The efferent nerves that carry motor signals from the central nervous system to the
internal organs. There are two kinds of efferent nerves in the automatic nervous system:
sympathetic nerves and parasympathetic nerves.

 The sympathetic nerves are automatic motor nerves that project from the CNS in the
lumbar (small of the back) and thoracic (chest area) regions of the spinal cord. It
expends energy and stimulates arousal.
 The parasympathetic nerves are automatic motor nerves that project from the brain
and sacral (lower back) region of the spinal cord. It conserves energy, inhibits arousal,
and stimulates relaxation.

Both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves have a two-stage paths: the neurons project
from the CNS and go only in part of the way to the target neurons before they synapse on
other neurons (second stage neuron) that carry out the signals the rest of the way.

The difference between them it is that the sympathetic neurons project from the CNS on a
second-stage neurons at a substantial distance, instead the parasympathetic neurons
project from the CNS synapse near their target.

Three meninges
The brain and spinal cord (the CNS) are the most protected organs in the body. They are
covered by three protective membranes, the three meninges.
1. The outer meninx is a tough membrane called dura mater.
2. The next membrane is the arachnoid membrane (spider-web-like membrane).
Below it, there is a space called subarachnoid space, which contains many large blood
vessels and cerebrospinal fluid.
3. The pia mater adheres to the surface of the CNS.

 The central nervous system is protected

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under
by the CC BY cerebrospinal fluid,
that can be found in the subarachnoid
space, the central canal of the spinal cord, and the cerebral ventricles of the brain.
 There are all interconnected by a series of openings and thus form a single reservoir.
Occasionally, the flow of cerebrospinal fluid is blocked by a tumor near one of the narrow
channels that link the ventricles.
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As a result, the buildup of fluid causes the walls of the ventricles and the entire brain to
expand, producing a condition called hydrocephalus (water head).
This is treated by training the excess fluid from the ventricles and trying to remove the
obstruction.
 The cells in the brain are packed and act as a barrier to any protein of large molecules.
(Blood-barrier barrier)

Nervous System
Most of the cells of the Nervous System are essentially summed in two different types:
neurons and glial cells.

Neurons
Neurons are cells specialized in reception, conduction, and transmission of electrochemical
signals to other cells (neurons, gland, muscle cells) External autonomy of neurons consist in:

 Neurons cell membrane

The neurons cell membrane is the semipermeable membrane that enclosed the neuron. It is
composed of a lipid bilayer, or two layers of fat molecules.
In the lipid bilayer there are many protein molecules that are the basis of many of the cell
membrane’s functional properties.
Some membrane proteins are channel proteins through which some molecules can pass
through, others are signal proteins, which transfer a signal to the inside of the neuron.

 Dendrites the short processes emanating from the cell body, which receive most of the
synaptic contacts from other neurons.
 Cell body the metabolic center of the neuron, also called soma.
 Axon hillock the cone-shaped region at the junction between the axon and the cell body.
 Axon the long, narrow process that projects from the cell body.
 Myelin the fatty insulation around many axons.
 Nodes of Ranvier the gaps between section of myelin.
 Buttons the buttonlike endings of the axon branches, which release chemicals into
synapses.
 Synapses the gap between adjacent neurons where chemical signals are transmitted.
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Classes of neurons
There are different types of neurons based on the number of processes emanating from
their cell bodies.
Multipolar neuron = A neuron with more than two processes extending from its cell body.
Unipolar neuron = A neuron with one process extending from its cell body.
Bipolar neuron = A neuron with two processes extending from its cell body.
Interneurons = Neurons with short axon or no axon with the function of integrate neural
activity within a single brain structure rather than transmit a signal.

There are two kinds of neural structures in the nervous system: those composed mainly of
cell bodies and those composed mainly by axons.
-In the CNS, clusters of cell bodies are called nuclei. Bundles of axons are instead tracts.
-In the peripheral nervous system, clusters of cell bodies are called ganglia. Bundles of axons
are called nerves.

The spinal cord

The spinal cord is made of two parts: the gray matter and the white matter.
-The gray matter is largely composed by cell bodies and unmyelinated interneurons.
-The white matter is rather composed of myelinated axons (myelin that gives the white
sheen).

Many neurons from the gray matter of the spinal cord, send axons to the brain or to other
parts of the spinal cord through the white matter.
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Five major dimensions of the brain

In the vertebrate embryo, the first indication of the developing brain are three swellings
that eventually develop into the adult forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
Before birth, the three initial swellings become five. (The forebrain and the hindbrain
swellings grow into two different swellings)
In humans and other vertebrates, the telencephalon undergoes the greatest growth during
development.

-The other division of the brain in

individual structures consist in cerebrum
(telencephalon), midbrain (diencephalon,
mesencephalon, metencephalon only with
pons and myelencephalon) and
cerebellum (metencephalon).

1. Telencephalon
2. Diencephalon
3. Mesencephalon (or midbrain)
4. Metencephalon (medulla)
5. Myelencephalon

1. Hindbrain: myelencephalon and metencephalon

Myelencephalon
The myelencephalon (or medulla) is the most posterior division of the brain, composed
mostly by tracts carrying signals between the rest of the brain and the body.
It has a role in the reticular formation; the various nuclei of it are involved in a variety of
function as attention, movement, circulatory, cardiac, or respiratory reflexes.

Metencephalon
The metencephalons houses part of the reticular formation. It has two major dimensions,
the pons, and the cerebellum.
-The “pons” is a bulge created by these structures, on the brain steam’s ventral surface.
-The cerebellum (little brain), a large sensorimotor structure on the brain stem’s dorsal
surface. It plays a role in movement as timing, coordination of new movement pattern and
cognition.
It is damage can cause loss in the ability of precisely control movements and to adapt them
changing condition.
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2. Midbrain: mesencephalon
Mesencephalon
The mesencephalon has two structures, the tectum, and the tegmentum.
-The tectum (roof) is the dorsal surface of the midbrain.
In mammals, the tectum is composed of two pairs of bumps “the colliculi”.
The posterior part is called the inferior colliculi that have an auditory function.
The anterior part is called superior colliculi that have a visual-motor function.
In lower vertebrates, the function of the tectum is entirely visual motor.

-The tegmentum is the division of the mesencephalon ventral to the tectum.

It contains three important structures, the substantia nigra and red nucleus both important
components of the sensorimotor system.
The periaqueductal grey is the gray matter, known because of its role in pain-reducing.

3. Forebrain: diencephalon and telencephalon

Diencephalon
The diencephalon is composed of two structures, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus.
-The thalamus is a pair of structures (left and right) in the center of the forebrain.
Most sensory information goes first to the thalamus which processes it and sends output to
the cerebral cortex thanks to the sensory relay nuclei. An exception is the olfactory
receptors that go directly to the cerebral cortex.
On the surface it is visible the white lamina, composed of myelinated axons.

-The hypothalamus is located just below (ventral) to the thalamus. It is important for the
regulation of several motivated behaviors as eating, sleep and so on. Its effects are applied
in part by regulating the release of hormones from the pituitary gland, an endocrine
(hormone-producing) gland attached to the base of the hypothalamus.
There is other two structures: the mammillary bodies and the optic chiasm is the point at
which the optic nerves from each eye come together.

Telencephalon
The telencephalon is the largest structure of the human brain, mediates the brain’s most
complex functions as complex cognitive learning, voluntary movement and interprets
sensory inputs.

-The cerebral cortex is the layer of the cerebral hemisphere. It is mainly composed by
unmyelinated neurons, for this reason is gray and it is referred as gray matter. Instead, the
layer below it is manly composed by large, myelinated axons, which are white and often
referred as white matter.
In humans, but not all mammals, the cerebral cortex has convolutions that have the effect of
increasing the amount of cerebral cortex without increasing the overall volume of the brain.

The large furrows are called fissures and the small one’s sulci.
The cerebral hemispheres are almost completely separated by the longitudinal fissure.
The hemisphere-connecting tracts to the longitudinal fissure are called cerebral
commissures, in which the largest is the corpus callosum.
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Two important points on the later surface of each hemisphere are the central fissure and
the lateral fissure. These fissures partially divide each hemisphere into four lobes: the
frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes.

About 90 percent of human cerebral cortex is neocortex, of relatively recent evolution,

made by six layers numbered from 1 to 6 by convention. The hippocampus is one important
area of cortex that is not in the neocortex; it has only 3 layers.

Limbic system and the basal ganglia (telencephalon)

1. The limbic system is a circuit of midline structures that circle the Thalamus
(Diencephalon). It is involved in the regulation of motivated behaviors, memory,
smell, and emotions.

Major structures of the limbic system include the hippocampus, mammillary bodies, the
amygdala, the cingulate cortex, the fornix, and the septum.

-The amygdala (“almond”) is the almond-shaped nucleus in the anterior temporal lobe.
Posterior to it there is the hippocampus. It is involved in emotion, fear especially.
-The cingulate cortex is a large strip of cortex in the cingulate gyrus just superior to the
corpus callosum.
-The fornix is the major tract of limbic system and create an arc coursing along the superior
surface of the third ventricle and terminating in the septum.
-The septum is a midline nucleus located at the anterior tip of the cingulate cortex.

2. The basal ganglia are composed by amygdala (considerate part of both system),
stratum and globus pallidus. It has a role in the voluntary motor response as
planning, decision making and directing movement.

-Sweeping out of each amygdala, in the posterior and anterior direction there is a long tail-
like caudate; each of them forms an almost complete circle.
-In the center of the caudate there is the putamen.
Together the caudate and the putamen are known as striatum (striped structure).
-The remaining structure of the basal ganglia is the globus pallidus, located between the
putamen and the thalamus.

Damage to the basal ganglia causes disturbances in planning and directing movement (e.g.,
Parkinson’s disease).
Deep brain stimulation in basal ganglia can treat some of the symptoms of Parkinson
disease.

The Occipital Lobe

The occipital lobe at the posterior end of the cortex, is the main target for visual
information.
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The posterior pole is known as primary visual cortex or striate cortex, because of its striped
appearance.
Destruction of any part of the striate cortex causes cortical blindness; it means that a person
still has normal eyes and pupillary reflexes but no conscious visual perception and no visual
imagery, even in dreams.
People who suffer eye damage become blind, but if they had previous visual experience and
an intact occipital cortex, can still have dreams, and imagine visual scenes.

The Parietal Lobe

The parietal lobe lies between the occipital lobe and the central sulcus, a deep grove in the
surface of the cortex.
The area just posterior to the central sulcus, the postcentral gyrus or primary
somatosensory cortex receives information from touch receptors, muscle-stretch receptors,
and joint receptors.

The post central gyrus includes four bands of cells parallel to the central sulcus.
Separate areas receive simultaneous information from different body part. Two bands
mostly receive light-touch information, one receives deep-pressure information, and one
receives a combination of both.

The parietal lobe monitors all the information about the eye, head, body position and
passes it to the brain areas that control movement. It is essential for spatial information but
also numerical one.

The Temporal Lobe

The temporal lobe is the lateral portion of each hemisphere, and it is the primary cortical
target for auditory information.
In most cases, in humans, the left temporal lobe is essential for understanding spoken
language. It also contributes to complex aspect of vision, perception of movement and
recognition of faces. The temporal lobe is also important for emotional and motivational
behaviors.
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A tumor in the temporal lobe can rise visual hallucinations, or a damage can led to a set of
behavior known as a Kliiver-Bucy syndrome.

The Frontal Lobe

The frontal lobe contains the primary motor cortex and the prefrontal cortex, and it extends
from the central sulcus to the anterior limit of the brain.
The posterior of the frontal lobe, the precentral gyrus or primary motor cortex, is
specialized for the control of fine movements, such as the finger.
Each area in the motor cortex controls more than a single muscle when they usually move
together.
The anterior portion of the frontal lobe, the prefrontal cortex, is in general larger according
to how large is the cerebral cortex.
The prefrontal cortex has three major regions.
-The posterior part is mostly associated with movement.
-The middle zone pertains to working memory (ability to remember recent events),
cognitive control and emotional reactions. If damaged, people may have delayed-response
task.
-The anterior part is important for making decision, evaluating action that are likely to
achieve the best outcome. If damaged, it seems that people make decisions too impulsive.

Binding problem
How various areas of brain combine to produce a unified experience as a single perception
of a single object is not yet clear and it is known as binding problem or large-scale
integration problem.
Researchers explained that what it is necessary to occur is perceiving two sensations as
happening at the same time and in approximately the sample place.