Coordination in human

Coordination involves:

● Detection of a stimulus

● Response to that stimulus

● Two systems in our body are involved: nervous system and endocrine system

● Function of nervous system and endocrine system: to carry information around

the body.

Homeostasis: is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.

Maintaining body water content and body temperature are both examples of
homeostasis

Stimulus: any change either in the environment or inside the body of an organism
which initiate to take any action. e.g., light, noise, heat etc.

Receptors: are the cells/tissues that detect the stimulus and convert it into an
electrical impulse.

Effectors: are the specialised muscles or glands which contract to respond to a

stimulus.

Response: any action taken due to a stimulus is called response. It usually

involves either muscle or gland.

Transduction: transfer of energy from one form to another. Our sense organs
convert different stimuli into electrical impulse.

Plants do not have sense organs like us but even they respond to the surrounding.

Stimulus for plants are…light/water/gravity

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A flow chart show that a coordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor
and an effector.

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Different sense organs in human

Sense organ Respond to (stimulus)

eyes Light

ears Sound/noise

nose Smell (chemicals in air)

skin Touch, temperature and

pressure/pain

tongue Taste (chemicals in food)

Differences between nervous communication and hormonal communication

Nervous communication Hormonal communication

/ Nervous system /endocrine system

Uses electrical impulses to send signals Uses chemical messengers/ hormones

through neurons/nerve cells transported to blood plasma to target
cells

Transmission is short but quick Transmission is long-lasting but slow

Responses are localized Responses are widespread

Responses are temporary and Responses are often permanent

reversible

Information is carried out by nerve Information is carried out by blood

cells

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Or,

Property Nervous communication Hormonal communication

(nervous system) (endocrine system)

Speed of conduction fast Slow

Message/information Neurons or nerve cells Blood

carried by/through

Information is carried as Electrical impulse Chemical

substances/hormones

Duration of response short Long

Area of effect localised Wide spread

The nervous system

Consists of -

1. Brain
2. Spinal cord
3. Nerves

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Major parts of brain

1. Cerebrum: receives all the information from receptors. Responsible for

voluntary muscle contraction, memory, thinking, reasoning, learning etc.
2. Cerebellum: controls balance and coordination (voluntary skeletal muscle
activity).
3. Medulla: controls involuntary actions of the body like heartbeat, breathing,
swallowing, coughing, sneezing, sleep etc.

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Nerve cell/neuron: a specialised cell that carries information around the body as
electrical (nerve) impulse.

Kinds of neurons:

Key to remember: Receptor CNS effectors

1. Sensory neuron: carries information from receptors to CNS.

2. Motor neuron: carries information from CNS to effectors.
3. Relay neuron: carries information from sensory neuron to motor neuron

A neuron has the following structures:

1. Cell body …. nucleus 3. Others

2. Nerve fibres: Axon terminal
Dendrite – receives the Myelin sheath
information
Node of Ranvier
Dendron – carries information
towards cell body Synaptic knob
Axon - carries information away
from cell body

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Q. How information is transferred from one neuron to another?

● Nerve impulse arrives at the end of first neurone (synaptic knob)

● It stimulates the release of the chemical called neurotransmitter (acetylcholine)

from the vesicles in it (synaptic knob)

● Neurotransmitter then diffuses across the synapse (little gap between two
neurone)

● When it reaches the dendrite of next neurone, neurotransmitter is broken

down by enzyme that triggers to create an electrical impulse

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Reflex action: a sudden, innate, involuntary action where brain is not involved.

Reflex arc: the pathway through which information/electrical impulse is carried

during a reflex action.

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Structures of section through a spinal cord

1. Spinal root 5. White matter

2. Dorsal root 6. Gray matter
3. Ganglion 7. Central canal
4. Ventral root

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Steps of reflex arc during the reflex action of moving fingers from a spine:

1. Receptors on skin detect the pain and convert it into electrical impulse.
2. Sensory neurone carries the information to Gray matter through dorsal
root (where cell body of sensory neurone lies within the ganglion)
3. Then the information is transferred to relay neurone through the synapse
where neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse.
4. Information is then transferred from relay neurone to motor neurone in the
Gray matter.
5. Motor neurone carries the information through ventral root to an effector
(muscles) which contract to move away the fingers from spine.

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Describe the iris reflex in human
Ans:

• Receptors on the retina detect the change in light intensity and convert it into electrical
impulse.
• Sensory neurone in optic nerve carries the information to unconscious part of the brain.
• Then, the information is passed to relay neurone and then to motor neurone across the
synapse.
• The motor neurone carries the electrical impulse to muscles (effectors) off the iris which
contract to change the size of the pupil.

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The eye

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Function of structures of an eye

1. Conjunctiva – protects part of cornea

2. Cornea – bends the light entering the eye
3. Iris – controls the amount of light entering the eye
4. Pupil – small whole in front of eye that allows light to enter the eye
5. Lens – bends the light to focus an object on the retina
6. Aqueous humour – a watery fluid that supplies nutrients to the lens and
cornea
7. Vitreous humour – jelly like and maintains the shape of eye
8. Ciliary muscles – change the shape of lens to focus an object on the retina
by contracting or relaxing itself
9. Suspensory ligaments – hold the lens in place/attaches lens to ciliary
muscles

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 10. Sclera/sclerotic layer – made of tough tissues that maintain the shape of
eye
11. Choroid – contains a black pigment, melanin that prevents the reflection of
light inside the eye/retina
Contains blood vessels that provides nutrition to the eye
12. Retina – contains light sensitive cells (rods and cones) which detects the
stimulus and converts light energy into a nerve/electrical impulse
13. Yellow spot/ fovea – place on the retina where clear image of an object is
formed
14. Optic nerve – carries information from eye to brain as electrical impulse
Differences between cones and rods

Cones Rods

Help to see in bright light Help to see in dim light

Form clear image of an object Do not form clear image of an object

Cones form colourful images Rods can’t form colourful image

The entire yellow spot is filled with Most of the parts of retina is filled with
cones and rest of the retina is filled rods except yellow spot
with few cones

Accommodation: Adjustment of the structures (especially lens) of an eye to see a

near or distant object is called accommodation.

Or,

Accommodation is the adjustment made to the shape of the lens in order to focus
objects on the retina at different distances. This changes the refractive power
(focal length) of the lens.

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Changes of structures of an eye to see near and distant object

Structures of eye To see

near object distant object

Ciliary muscles contract relax

Suspensory ligaments slack taut

Lens fatter thinner

Bending of light more less

To focus an object on to the retina

Object closer/far away: related features need to consider

Bending of light: more or less

Lens: fatter or thinner
Suspensory ligaments: slack or taut
Ciliary muscles: contract or relax

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Changes of structures of an eye to see in bright and dim light

Structures of an eye in bright light in dim light

Circular muscles contract relax

Radial muscles relax contract

pupil Become smaller Become larger

Or, constricts Or, dilates

Advantage Will allow less light to Will allow more light to

enter, thus prevent the enter to see the object
rods and cones on retina clearly
from being damaged

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Function and section through skin

See book edexcel IGCSE (9-1) BIOLOGY page 113

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Role of skin to control body temperature

Structures/activity When body temperature When body temperature

rises than optimum (370C) Decreases than optimum
(370C)

Sweat glands Release more sweat. Release less sweat.

Water molecules of sweat on Less heat energy will be used

the surface of the skin to evaporate water
evaporates using latent heat molecules from the surface
beneath the skin of skin.

Hair erector muscles Relax and lie on the surface Contract and become erect.
of the skin.
Hairs on the skin trap more
Hairs on the skin trap less air air (air is a poor heat
(air is a poor heat conductor), conductor) and allows less
allows more heat to radiate heat to radiate easily.
easily.

Capillary loops Dilate. Constrict.

As a result, more blood flows As a result, less blood flows

through it and thus, allow through it and thus, allow
more heat to radiate from less heat to radiate from the
the body. The process is body. The process is called
called vasodilation. vasoconstriction.

shivering -- Shivering occurs i.e., lots of

chemical reactions release a
lot of heat energy in the
body, thus increase the body
temperature.

Which reduces the body Which rises the body

temperature to optimum temperature to optimum

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Two kinds of glands present in our body:

Exocrine glands: release fluids through a duct/canal. e.g., pancreas (releases

digestive enzymes through pancreatic duct), gall bladder, tear gland etc.

Endocrine glands: release fluids straight into the blood (without any duct).

e.g., pancreas (when it releases hormones into the blood), ovaries, testes, pituitary
gland etc.

Endocrine system: a system consisting of endocrine glands.

Endocrine gland Hormone releases Role of hormone

1. Pituitary gland FSH (Follicle 1. Stimulates follicle growth

stimulating hormone)
2. Stimulates sperm production in male.

3. Stimulates egg development in female.

4. Stimulates oestrogen secretion in female.

ADH (Antidiuretic Stimulates kidneys to reabsorb water from collecting

hormone) duct

(Diuresis means flow Or, control the water level in the body
of urine from the
body)

LH (Luteinising 1. Causes ovulation

hormone) 2. Help in formation of corpus luteum
3. Stimulates progesterone release
4. Stimulates testosterone production in male.

Growth hormone Stimulates the synthesis of protein and growth

2. Thyroid gland Thyroxine Regulates the body’s metabolism and help in normal
physical and mental development

3. Adrenal gland Adrenaline Increases heart rate, breathing rate, blood flow to the
muscles etc. during anger, fear and stress.
(fight or flight
hormone)

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4. Pancreas Insulin Converts the excess glucose into glycogen in liver and
store in it, thus lowers the glucose level in blood.

Glucagon Break down glycogen into glucose in liver, thus rises

the glucose level in blood.

5. Ovaries Oestrogen 1. Controls the development of secondary sexual

characteristics in female.

2. Repairs lining of uterus/ endometrium.

3. Slows down the production of FSH.

4. Stimulates the secretion of LH by pituitary gland.

Progesterone 1. Completes the development of the uterus lining

[maintain the lining of uterus (richly supplied with
blood vessels) for implantation of an embryo]

2. Inhibits/ prevents the release of FSH and LH by

pituitary gland.

3. Prevent ovulation.

4. Prevent egg development.

6. Testes Testosterone Controls the development of secondary sexual

characteristics in male.

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