Coordination

Stimulus & Response

For example:
the smell of food is an unconditioned stimulus
(Receptor: nose)

a feeling of hunger in response to the smell is an unconditioned response

the sound of a whistle when you smell the food is the conditioned stimulus
(Effector: stomach)

The conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.
 Sensory Neurone

Stimulus Receptor CNS

a t i o n
ordin
Relay
Co Neurone

Response Effector CNS

Motor Neurone
What is linking the receptor
and the effector ?
The nervous system
 Nerve impulses Nerve impulses
the information in the
nerve cell (neurone) is
tranmitted on the form of
tiny electrical signals
Receptor
What is receptor?
detect the stimulus

How it works?
by changing its energy into the electrical energy
of the the nerve impulses
 RECEPTOR TYPE OF ENERGY RECEIVED

Eye (retina) Light

Ear (organ of hearing) Sound

Ear (organ of balance) Mechanical (kinetic)

Tongue (taste buds) Chemical

Nose (organ of smell) Chemical

Skin (touch/pressure/pain Mechanical (kinetic)

receptors)
Skin (temperature receptors) Heat

Muscle (stretch receptors) Mechanical (kinetic)

CNS
• consists of brain and spinal cord
• caused by the movement of charged particles (ions) in
and out of the neurone
• impulses that travel along a neurone ≠ electrical
current
 CNS
• impluses from receptors pass along
nerves containing sensory neurones,
until they reach the brain and spinal
cord
• motor neurones – transmitting
impulses to the muscles & glands
• some nerves only contain sensory or
motor cells while others contain both
 Motor Neurone

dendron
(that makes
myelin sheath)

CNS

direction of impulses
 Sensory Neurone

dendron
CNS

direction of impulses
Relay Neurone
Human eye

Sclera
• tough outer surface
 Human eye

Cornea
• transparent
“window”
 Human eye

Iris
• coloured ring
of tissue
 Human eye

Pupil
• let the light thorugh
• no light escaping
from the inside eye
 Human eye

Choroid
• contains many pigment cells
 Retina
Human eye • light sentitive layer
• light energy
electrical energy of
nerve impulses
• contains rods and
cones
Human eye

Optic nerve
• the pathway of
sensory neurones
to the brain
Human eye

Fovea
• center of the retina
• where cones particularly
concentrated
 Human eye
ciliary muscles retina
forvea

iris
lens optic nerve
pupil
cornea

conjunctiva

suspensory blind spot

ligaments sclera
choroid
 Cone and rod cell

react to light, producing impulses

How it works???
the sensory neurones pass the impulses to
the brain through
the optic nerve

Where are they??? retina

• cones are particularly concetrated at fovea
 Cone and rod cell

Cone cell Rod cell

Only works in bright light Works well in dim light

Respond different wavelength and Cannot distingish colour

colour of light (red, green, blue)
Give a more shaper image than rod cell Give a shaper image
 Forming an image

A real, inverted, and smaller

image is formed
Step 01 Step 03

Step 02

Light rays from the object Rod cell and cone cells
are refracted and focused generate nerve impulses
onto the retina
 Forming an image

Then, to the visual centre in

the brain

Step 04
Step 06
Step 05

Nerve impulses are Nerve impulses are

transmitted along the optic interpreted and “seen” as an
nerve upright image
In dim light…

• circular muscles relax

• radical muscles contract

• pupil dilates

dilates: more light enters the eye

In bright light…

• circular muscles contact

• radical muscles relax

• pupil constricts

constricts : less light enters the eye

Accommodation
• by controlling the curvature of lens

more convex less convex

(near objects) (distant objects)

• ability of the eye to focus on objects at different distances

Accommodation
Focusing on a distant object

• ciliary muscles relax

• suspensory ligaments
pulled tight

• lens ”flat”
Accommodation
Focusing on a nearby object

• ciliary muscles contract

• suspensory ligaments
slack

• lens more rounded

Structure of spinal cord
Structure of spinal cord Dorsal root
• contains sensory
neurones with cell bodies
groupde in the dorsal
root
Structure of spinal cord

ventral root
• contains motor neurones
Structure of spinal cord
white matter
• contains nerve fibres

grey matter
• contains cell bodies
Function of spinal cord

• Responsible for many reflex actions

• Relay nerve impulses between the brain and

other body parts

 Withdrawal reflex brain

1. The hand
touches the fire
Withdrawal reflex brain

2. Pain receptors
are stimulated and
they generate
nerve impulses.
 Withdrawal reflex brain

3. Nerve impulses
travel along the
sensory neurone to
the spinal cord.
Withdrawal reflex brain

4. Nerve impulses
travel along the
relay neurone and
motor neurone to
the arm muscle
 Withdrawal reflex brain

5. The arm muscle

(effector) contracts
 Withdrawal reflex brain

6. The hand
withdrws to prevent
damage
Withdrawal reflex brain

• nerve impulses transmitted to the

brain bia anither nervous pathway

• the hand withdraws before the nerve

impulses reaches the cerebrum and

pain is felt
 Knee jerk reflex

1. The tendon just

below the knee cap
is tapped
Knee jerk reflex

2. Stretch receptor in
the upper thigh
muscle is stimulated
Knee jerk reflex

3. Nerve impulses
travel along the
sensory neurone.
Knee jerk reflex

4. Nerve impulses
travel the motor
neurone to the leg
muscle
Knee jerk reflex

5. The leg muscle

(effector) contracts
Knee jerk reflex

6. The leg kicks

 Sensory Neurone

Stimulus Receptor CNS

Relay
Neurone

Response Effector CNS

Motor Neurone
Transmission of nerve impulse across a synapse

Sensory Neurone Interneurone

cannot travel directly

across synapse

direction of impulses
Nerve impulses are
electrical messages
Transmission of nerve impulse across a synapse

direction of impulses
Transmission of nerve impulse across a synapse

dendron
 Transmission of nerve impulse across a synapse

dendron

1. Nerve impulse arrives

 Transmission of nerve impulse across a synapse

dendron

2. The ending of the axon

releases chemical called
neutotransmitters
 Transmission of nerve impulse across a synapse

dendron

3. The neurotransmitters
diffuse across the synapse
 Transmission of nerve impulse across a synapse

dendron

4. The neurotransmitters
simulate the dendron to
generate a nerve impulse
Importance of synapses
Only endings of axon can secrete neurotransmitters,
therefore
nerve impulses
axon dendron
nerve impulses
dendron axon

nerve impulses can only travel in one direction

Importance of synapses
Most neruones have one more than
one synapse thus they can
communicate with many other
neurones.