Reviewer in Anapiya finals (part 2) • Schwann cells – Form myelin sheath in the peripheral

nervous system
The Nervous System
Functions of the Nervous System

• Sensory input – gathering information Nervous Tissue: Neurons

– To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the • Neurons = nerve cells
body – Cells specialized to transmit messages
– Changes = stimuli Major regions of neurons
• Integration -To process and interpret sensory input and – Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
decide if action is needed – Processes – fibers that extend from the cell body
• Motor output – effects a response
Cell body
Structural Classification of the Nervous System Nissl substance – specialized rough endoplasmic
• Central nervous system (CNS) reticulum
– Brain Neurofibrils – intermediate cytoskeleton that maintains
– Spinal cord cell shape
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
– Nerve outside the brain and spinal cord Neuron Anatomy

Functional Classification of the PNS • Cell body

• Sensory (afferent) division – Nerve fibers that carry – Nucleus
information to the central nervous system – Large nucleolus
• Motor (efferent) division - Nerve fibers that carry Extensions outside
impulses away from the central nervous system the cell body
Two subdivision of efferent –Dendrites – conduct
– Somatic nervous system = voluntary impulses toward the
– Autonomic nervous system = involuntary cell body
Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells (Neuroglia) • Neurons have hundred
branches of dendrites
• Astrocytes – Axons – conduct
– Abundant, star-shaped cells impulses away from the
– Brace neurons cell body
– Form barrier between capillaries and neurons • each neuron has only
– Control the chemical environment of the brain one axon
• Microglia
– Spider-like phagocytes Axons and Nerve Impulses
– Dispose of debris • Axons end in axonal terminals
• Ependymal cells • Axonal terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters
– Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord • Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by
– Circulate cerebrospinal fluid a gap
• Oligodendrocytes – Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent neurons
– Produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the central – Synapse – junction between nerves
nervous system
• Satellite cells – Protect neuron cell bodies
Nerve Fiber Coverings • A depolarized membrane
• Schwann cells – produce myelin allows sodium (Na+) to flow
sheaths in jelly-roll like fashion inside the membrane
• Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin • the exchange of ions initiates
sheath along the axon an action potential in the
neuron
Neuron Cell Body Location
• Most are found in the central nervous system The Action Potential
– Gray matter – cell bodies and unmylenated fibers • If the action potential (nerve
– Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within the white impulse) starts, it is
matter of the central nervous system propagated over the entire
• Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the central axon
nervous system • Potassium ions rush out of
the neuron after sodium ions
Functional Classification of Neurons rush in, which repolarizes the membrane
• Sensory (afferent) neurons • the sodium-potassium pump restores the original
– Carry impulses from the sensory receptors (in the configuration
internal organs or skin) to the CNS – This action requires ATP
– Cutaneous sense organs
– Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension Nerve Impulse Propagation (not included in virtual L)
• Motor (efferent) neurons • the impulse continues to move toward the cell body
– Carry impulses from the central nervous system to the • Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath
viscera, muscles or glands
– Always located in the CNS Continuation of the Nerve Impulse between Neurons
• Interneurons (association neurons) • Impulses are able to cross the synapse to another nerve
– Found in neural pathways in the central nervous system – Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s axon
– Connect sensory and motor neurons terminal
– The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that are
stimulated by the neurotransmitter
– An action potential is started in the dendrite (N included)
White matter – konti
lang na nerves The Reflex Arc
• Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to
stimuli
• Reflex arc – direct route from a
Gray matter – tumpok sensory neuron, to an interneuron, to
tumpok na nerves
an effector
– Involve both CNS & PNS

Structural Classification of Neurons

• Multipolar neurons – many extensions from the cell body
• Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite
• Unipolar neurons – have a short single process leaving
Simple Reflex Arc
the cell body

Physiology (Nerve Impulses)

• Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli
• Conductivity – ability to transmit an impulse
• The plasma membrane at rest is polarized – Fewer
positive ions are inside the cell than outside the cell

Starting a Nerve Impulse

• Depolarization – a stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s
membrane
Types of Reflexes Sensory and Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
• Somatic reflexes
– Activation of skeletal muscles
• Autonomic reflexes
– Smooth muscle regulation
– Heart and blood pressure regulation
– Regulation of glands
– Digestive system regulation

Central Nervous System (CNS)

• CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube
– The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord
– The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles
• Four chambers within the brain
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
• Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
• Cerebral areas involved in special senses
Regions of the Brain – Gustatory area (taste) - temporal
• Cerebral hemispheres – Visual area - occipital
• Diencephalon – Auditory area - temporal
• Brain stem – Olfactory area - temporal
• Cerebellum • Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
– Speech/language region
– Language comprehension region
Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) – General interpretation area
• Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain
• Include more than half of the brain mass Layers of the Cerebrum
• Gray matter
– Outer layer
– Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies
• White matter
– Fiber tracts inside the gray matter
– Example: corpus callosum connects hemispheres
• Basal nuclei
– internal islands of gray matter (dina sinama)

Diencephalon
• Sits on top of the brain stem
• Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
• Made of three parts
– Thalamus
The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci) – Hypothalamus
– Epithalamus
Lobes of the Cerebrum
• Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes Thalamus
• Surface lobes of the cerebrum • Surrounds the third ventricle
– Frontal lobe • the relay station for sensory impulses
– Parietal lobe • Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for
– Occipital lobe localization and interpretation
– Temporal lobe Hypothalamus
• under the thalamus
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
• Important autonomic nervous system center
• Somatic sensory area – receives impulses from the
– Helps regulate body temperature
body’s sensory receptors (parietal lobe)
– Controls water balance
• Primary motor area – sends impulses to skeletal
– Regulates metabolism
muscles
• an important part of the limbic system (emotions)
• Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak
• the pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus
Epithalamus Protection of the Central Nervous System
• Forms the roof of the third ventricle • Scalp and skin
• Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland) • Skull and vertebral column
• Includes the choroid plexus – forms cerebrospinal fluid • Meninges
• Cerebrospinal fluid
Brain Stem • Blood brain barrier
• Attaches to the spinal cord
• Parts of the brain stem Meninges
– Midbrain • Dura mater
– Pons • Double-layered external covering
– Medulla oblongata – Periosteum – attached to surface of the skull
– Meningeal layer – outer covering of the brain
Midbrain • Folds inward in several areas
• Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers
• Has two bulging fiber tracts – cerebral peduncles • Arachnoid layer (dina sinama)
• Has four rounded protrusions – corpora quadrigemina – Middle layer
– Reflex centers for vision and hearing – Web-like
• Pia mater (dina sanama)
Pons – Internal layer
• The bulging center part of the brain stem – Clings to the surface of the brain
• Mostly composed of fiber tracts
• Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Similar to blood plasma composition
Medulla Oblongata • Formed by the choroid plexus
• The lowest part of the brain stem • Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
• Merges into the spinal cord • Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central
• Includes important fiber tracts canal of the spinal cord
• Contains important control centers
– Heart rate control Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid
– Blood pressure regulation
– Breathing
– Swallowing
– Vomiting

Blood Brain Barrier

• Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
• Excludes many potentially harmful substances
• Useless against some substances
– Fats and fat soluble molecules
– Respiratory gases
– Alcohol
– Nicotine
– Anesthesia
Cerebellum Traumatic Brain Injuries (Dina kasama)
• Two hemispheres with • Concussion
convoluted surfaces – Slight brain injury
• Provides involuntary – No permanent brain damage
coordination of body • Contusion
movements – Nervous tissue destruction occurs
– Nervous tissue does not regenerate
• Cerebral edema (dina kasama) • Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
– Swelling from the inflammatory response • Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue
– May compress and kill brain tissue
Structure of a Nerve
Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) • Endoneurium surrounds each fiber
• Commonly called a stroke • Groups of fibers are bound into
• The result of a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region fascicles by perineurium • Fascicles
of the brain are bound together by epineurium
• Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source
dies Classification of Nerves
• Loss of some functions or death may result • Mixed nerves – both sensory and
motor fibers
Alzheimer’s disease (dina kasama) • Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry
• Progressive degenerative brain disease impulses toward the CNS
• Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age • Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses away from
• Structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein the CNS
deposits and twisted fibers within neurons Cranial Nerves
• Victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion • 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the head and neck
and ultimately, hallucinations and death • Numbered in order, front to back
• Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only
Spinal Cord
• Extends from the medulla Distribution of Cranial Nerves
oblongata to the region of
T12
• Below T12 is the cauda
equina (a collection of
spinal nerves)
• Enlargements occur in the
cervical and lumbar regions

Spinal Cord Anatomy

• Exterior white mater
– conduction tracts
• Internal gray matter
- mostly cell bodies
– Dorsal (posterior) horns
– Anterior (ventral) horns
• Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
• Meninges cover the spinal cord
• Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae
1. O-olfactory – oh
– Dorsal root
2. O-optic - oh
• Associated with the dorsal root ganglia – collections
3. O-oculomotor - oh
of cell bodies outside the central nervous system
4. T-trochlear - to
– Ventral root
5. T-trigeminal – touch; s- face m - chewing
6. A-abducens - and
7. F-facial – feel – s – taste, m - face
8. V-vestibulocochlear – very – hearing and balance
9. G-glossopharygeal – good; s – taste m - swallowing
10. V-vagus – velvet s & m pharynx, larynx, viscera
11. A-accesory - shoulder
12. H-hypoglossal - tongue

• Sensory – 1, 2, 8
Peripheral Nervous System • Motor – 3, 4, 6, 11, 12
• Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous system • Mixed – 5, 7, 9, 10
• I Olfactory nerve – sensory for smell Examples of Nerve Distribution
• II Optic nerve – sensory for vision
• III Oculomotor nerve – motor fibers to eye muscles
• IV Trochlear – motor fiber to eye muscles
• V Trigeminal nerve – sensory for the face; motor
fibers to chewing muscles
• VI Abducens nerve – motor fibers to eye muscles
• VII Facial nerve – sensory for taste; motor fibers to
the face
• VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve – sensory for balance
and hearing
• IX Glossopharyngeal nerve – sensory for taste; motor
fibers to the pharynx
• X Vagus nerves – sensory and motor fibers for
pharynx, larynx, and viscera
• XI Accessory nerve – motor fibers to neck and upper
back
• XII Hypoglossal nerve – motor fibers to tongue

Spinal Nerves
• There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each
vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs
• Spinal nerves are formed by the combination of the
ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord
• Spinal nerves are named for the region from which they Autonomic Nervous System
arise • the involuntary branch of the nervous system
• Consists of only motor nerves
• Divided into two divisions
– Sympathetic division
– Parasympathetic division

Differences between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous

Systems
• Nerves
– Somatic – one motor neuron
– Autonomic – preganglionic and postganglionic nerves
• Effector organs
– Somatic – skeletal muscle
– Autonomic – smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
• Neurotransmitters
– Somatic – always use acetylcholine
– Autonomic – use acetylcholine, epinephrine, or
Anatomy of Spinal norepinephrine
Nerves
• Spinal nerves divide
soon after leaving the
spinal cord
– Dorsal rami – serve
the skin and muscles of
the posterior trunk
– Ventral rami – forms a
complex of networks
(plexus) for the anterior
Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
• Originates from T1 through L2
• Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk (near the spinal
cord)
• Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long postganglionic
neuron transmit impulse from CNS to the effector
• Norepinephrine and epinephrine are neurotransmitters
to the effector organs
• Parasympathetic – housekeeping activites
– Conserves energy
– Maintains daily necessary body functions
– Remember as the “D” division - digestion, defecation, and
diuresis
Development Aspects of the Nervous System
• The nervous system is formed during the first month of
embryonic development
• Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful
effects
• The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to
develop
• No more neurons are formed after birth, but growth and
maturation continues for several years
• The brain reaches maximum weight as a young adult

Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

• Originates from the brain stem and S1 through S4
• Terminal ganglia are at the effector organs
• Always uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter A

Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System The Reproductive System

• Gonads – primary sex organs
• Testes in males
• Ovaries in females
• Gonads produce gametes (sex cells) and secrete
hormones
• Sperm – male gametes
• Ova (eggs) – female gametes

Male Reproductive System

• Testes
• Duct system
• Epididymis
• Ductus deferens
• Urethra

Autonomic Functioning
• Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
– Response to unusual stimulus
– Takes over to increase activities
– Remember as the “E” division = exercise, excitement,
emergency, and embarrassment
 • Passes through the inguinal canal and over the bladder
• Accessory organs • Moves sperm by peristalsis
• Seminal vesicle • Spermatic cord – ductus deferens, blood vessels, and
• Prostate gland nerves in a connective tissue sheath
• Bulbourethral gland • Ends in the ejaculatory duct which unites with the
• External genitalia urethra
• Penis • Vasectomy – cutting of the ductus deferens at the level
• Scrotum of the testes to prevent transportation of sperm

Urethra
• Extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the tip of
the penis
• Carries both urine and sperm
• Sperm enters from the ejaculatory duct

• Regions of the urethra

• Prostatic urethra –surrounded by prostate
• Membranous urethra – from prostatic urethra to penis
• Spongy (penile) urethra – runs the length of the penis

Seminal Vesicles
• Located at the base of the bladder
Testes • Produces a thick, yellowish secretion (60% of semen)
• Coverings of the • Fructose (sugar)
testes • Vitamin C
• Tunica albuginea • Prostaglandins
– capsule that • other substances that nourish and activate sperm
surrounds each testis
Prostate Gland
• Septa – extensions
• Encircles the upper part of the urethra
of the capsule that
• Secretes a milky fluid
extend into the testis
• Helps to activate sperm
and divide it into
• Enters the urethra through several small ducts
lobules
Bulbourethral Glands
• Pea-sized gland inferior to the prostate
• Produces a thick, clear mucus
• Cleanses the urethra of acidic urine
• Serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse
• Secreted into the penile urethra
• Each lobule contains one to four seminiferous
tubules Semen
• tightly coiled structures • Mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions
• Function as sperm-forming factories • Advantages of accessory gland secretions
• Empty sperm into the rete testis • Fructose provides energy for sperm cells
• Sperm travels through the rete testis to the epididymis • Alkalinity of semen helps neutralize the acidic
• Interstitial cells produce androgens such as testosterone environment of vagina
• Semen inhibits bacterial multiplication
Epididymis • Elements of semen enhance sperm motility
• Comma-shaped, tightly coiled tube
• Found on the superior part of the testis and along the External Genitalia
posterior lateral side • Scrotum
• Functions to mature and store sperm cells (at least 20 • Divided sac of skin outside the abdomen
days) • Maintains testes at 3°C lower than normal body
• Expels sperm with the contraction of muscles in the temperature to protect sperm viability
epididymis walls to the vas deferens • Penis
• Delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract
Ductus Deferens (Vas Deferens)
• Carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
• Regions of the penis Testosterone Production
• Shaft • The most important hormone of the testes
• Glans penis (enlarged tip) • Produced in interstitial cells
• Prepuce (foreskin)
• Folded cuff of skin around proximal end • Functions of testosterone
• Often removed by circumcision • Stimulates reproductive organ development
• Internally there are three areas of spongy erectile tissue • Underlies sex drive
around the urethra • Causes secondary sex characteristics
• Deepening of voice
Spermatogenesis • Increased hair growth
• Production of sperm cells • Enlargement of skeletal muscles
• Begins at puberty and continues throughout life • Thickening of bones
• Occurs in the seminiferous tubules
Regulation of Male Androgens (Sex Hormones)
Processes of Spermatogenesis
• Spermatogonia (stem cells) undergo rapid mitosis to
produce more stem cells before puberty
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) modifies
spermatogonia division
• One cell produced is a
stem cell
• The other cell produced
becomes a primary
spermatocyte
• Primary spermatocytes
undergo meiosis Female Reproductive System
• Haploid spermatids are • Ovaries
produced • Duct System
• Spermiogenesis • Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes)
• Late spermatids are • Uterus
produced with distinct • Vagina
regions • External genitalia
• Head – contains DNA
covered by the acrosome
• Midpiece
• Tail
• Sperm cells result after
maturing of spermatids
• Spermatogenesis takes 64
to 72 days

Anatomy of a Mature Sperm Cell

• The only human flagellated cell
• DNA is found in the head

Ovaries
• Composed of
ovarian follicles
(sac-like structures)
• Structure of an
ovarian follicle
• Oocyte
• Follicular cells
 Ovarian Follicle Stages Walls of the Uterus
• Primary follicle - contains an immature oocyte • Endometrium
• Graafian (vesicular) follicle - growing follicle with a • Inner layer
maturing oocyte • Allows for implantation of a fertilized egg
• Ovulation - when the egg is mature the follicle ruptures • Sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs (menses)
• Occurs about every 28 days • Myometrium - middle layer of smooth muscle
• the ruptured follicle is transformed into a corpus • Serous layer - outer visceral peritoneum
luteum
Vagina
Support for Ovaries • Extends from cervix to exterior of body
• Suspensory ligaments - secure ovary to lateral walls of • Behind bladder and in front of rectum
the pelvis • Serves as the birth canal
• Ovarian ligaments - attach to uterus • Receives the penis during sexual intercourse
• Broad ligament - a fold of the peritoneum, encloses • Hymen - partially closes the vagina until it is ruptured
suspensory ligament
External Genitalia (Vulva)
• Mons pubis
• Fatty are overlying the pubic symphysis
• Covered with pubic hair after puberty
• Labia - skin folds
• Labia majora
• Labia minora
• Vestibule
• Enclosed by labia majora
• Contains opening of the urethra and the greater
vestibular glands (produce mucus)
Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes • Clitoris
• Receive the ovulated oocyte • Contains erectile tissue
• Provide a site for fertilization • Corresponds to the male penis
• Attaches to the uterus
• Does not physically attach to the ovary
• Supported by the broad ligament

Uterine Tube Function

• Fimbriae - finger-like projections at the distal end that
receive the oocyte
• Cilia inside the uterine tube slowly move the oocyte
towards the uterus (takes 3-4 days)
• Fertilization occurs inside the uterine tube

Uterus
• Located between the urinary bladder and rectum
• Hollow organ
• Functions of the uterus
• Receives a fertilized egg
• Retains the fertilized egg
• Nourishes the fertilized egg
Oogenesis
Support for the Uterus • the total supply of eggs are present at birth
• Broad ligament - attached to the pelvis • Ability to release eggs begins at puberty (menarche)
• Round ligament - anchored interiorly • Reproductive ability ends at menopause
• Uterosacral ligaments - anchored posteriorly • Oocytes are matured in developing ovarian follicles

Regions of the Uterus
• Body - main portion
• Fundus - area where uterine tube enters
• Cervix - narrow outlet that protrudes into the vagina
• Oogonia - female stem cells found in a developing fetus
• Oogonia undergo mitosis to produce primary oocytes
• Primary oocytes are surrounded by cells that form
primary follicles in the ovary
• Oogonia no longer exist by the time of birth
• Primary oocytes are inactive until puberty
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes some
primary follicles to mature
• Meiosis starts inside maturing follicle
• Produces a secondary oocyte and the first polar body
• Meiosis is completed after ovulation only if sperm
penetrates
• Two additional polar bodies are produced
Menstrual (Uterine) Cycle
• Cyclic changes of the endometrium
• Regulated by cyclic production of estrogens and
progesterone
• STAGES OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
• Menses – functional layer of the endometrium is
sloughed
• Proliferative stage – regeneration of functional layer
• Secretory stage – endometrium increases in size and
readies for implantation
Hormonal Control of the Ovarian and Uterine Cycles
Hormone Production by the Ovaries
• Estrogens
• Produced by follicle cells
• Cause secondary sex characteristics
• Enlargement of accessory organs
• Development of breasts
• Appearance of pubic hair
• Increase in fat beneath the skin
• Widening and lightening of the pelvis
• Onset of menses
Progesterone
• Produced by the corpus luteum
• Production continues until LH diminishes in the blood
• Helps maintain pregnancy
Mammary Glands
• Present in both sexes, but only function in females
• Modified sweat glands
• Function is to produce milk
• Stimulated by sex hormones (mostly estrogens) to
increase in size
Anatomy of Mammary Glands
• Areola – central pigmented area
• Nipple – protruding central area of areola
• Lobes – internal structures that radiate around nipple
• Alveolar glands – clusters of milk producing glands
within lobules
• Lactiferous ducts – connect alveolar glands to nipple
Stages of Pregnancy and Development
• Fertilization
• Embryonic development
• Fetal development
• Childbirth
Fertilization
• the oocyte is viable for 12 to 24 hours after ovulation
• Sperm are viable for 12 to 48 hours after ejaculation
• Sperm cells must make their way to the uterine tube for
fertilization to be possible
Mechanisms of Fertilization
• Membrane receptors on an oocyte pulls in the head of the
first sperm cell to make contact
• The membrane of the oocyte does not permit a second
sperm head to enter
• The oocyte then undergoes its second meiotic division
• Fertilization occurs when the genetic material of a sperm
combines with that of an oocyte to form a zygote
The Zygote
• First cell of a new individual
• the result of the fusion of DNA from sperm and egg
• the zygote begins rapid mitotic cell divisions
• the zygote stage is in the uterine tube, moving toward the
uterus
The Embryo
• Developmental stage from the start of cleavage until the
ninth week
• the embryo first undergoes division without growth
• the embryo enters the uterus at the 16-cell state
• the embryo floats free in the uterus temporarily
• Uterine secretions are used for nourishment
The Blastocyst
• Ball-like circle of cells
• Begins at about the 100 cell stage
• Secretes human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) to produce
the corpus luteum to continue producing hormones
• Functional areas of the blastocyst
• Trophoblast – large fluid-filled sphere
• Inner cell mass
Development from Ovulation to Implantation
• Urinary System
• Kidneys have additional burden and produce more urine
• the uterus compresses the bladder
• Respiratory System
• Nasal mucosa becomes congested and swollen
• Vital capacity and respiratory rate increase
• Cardiovascular system
• Body water rises
• Blood volume increases by 25 to 40 percent
• Blood pressure and pulse increase
• Varicose veins are common

Childbirth (Parturition)
• Labor – the series of events that expel the infant from the
uterus
• Initiation of labor
• Estrogen levels rise
• Uterine contractions begin
• the placenta releases prostaglandins
• Oxytocin is released by the pituitary
• Combination of these hormones produces contractions

Development after Implantation

• Chorionic villi (projections of the blastocyst) develop
• Cooperate with cells of the uterus to form the placenta
• The embryo is surrounded by the amnion (a fluid filled
sac)
• An umbilical cord forms to attach the embryo to the
placenta

Functions of the Placenta

• Forms a barrier between mother and embryo (blood is not
exchanged)
• Delivers nutrients and oxygen
• Removes waste from embryonic blood
• Becomes an endocrine organ (produces hormones) and
takes over for the corpus luteum
• Estrogen
• Progesterone
• other hormones that maintain pregnancy

The Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother

Stages of Labor
• Pregnancy – period from conception until birth
• Dilation
• Anatomical changes
• Cervix becomes dilated
• Enlargements of the uterus
• Uterine contractions begin and increase
• Accentuated lumbar curvature
• The amnion ruptures
• Relaxation of the pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis
• Expulsion
due to production of relaxin
• Infant passes through the cervix and vagina
• Physiological changes
• Normal delivery is head first
• Gastrointestinal system
• Placental stage
• Morning sickness is common due to elevated
• Delivery of the placenta
progesterone
• Heartburn is common because of organ crowding by
the fetus
• Constipation is caused by declining motility of the
digestive tract
Developmental Aspects of the Reproductive System - diencephalon
• Gender is determined at fertilization
• Males have XY sex chromosomes
• Females have XX sex chromosomes
• Gonads do not begin to form until the eighth week
• Testes form in the abdominal cavity and descend to the
scrotum one month before birth
• The determining factor for gonad differentiation is
testosterone
• Reproductive system organs do not function until CSF – nagbibigay
puberty nourishment
• Puberty usually begins between ages 10 and 15 hydrocephalus – nababarahan yung choroid plexus
• The first menses usually occurs about two years after the
start of puberty
• Most women reach peak reproductive ability in their late
20s
• Menopause occurs when ovulation and menses cease
entirely
• Ovaries stop functioning as endocrine organs
• There is a no equivalent of menopause in males, but
there is a steady decline in testosterone Meningitis – caused by virus in meninges

Additional info:
No motor output –ex. Is stroke
No integration (hard in decision making) - ex. Alzheimer
Somatic – is for skeletal
Autonomic – ex negative feedback, heartbeat
cathecolamine – para & symphatetic
PISO – potassium in, sodium out
- where sodium goes water follows (polarized or at rest)
Embryo – where brain develop, bawal magkasakit nanay
in first 3 months
Ectopic – the fertilized egg grows outside the uterus}
Breech – una paa
Broca’s area

- 3-5 minutes kailangan maoperahan agad which is

impossible