Introduction to Psychology | APY_1101 | Chapter 3 • Myelin – white, fatty substance that tightly wraps

the axons which makes them look like strings of

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES OF HUMAN
sausages under the microscope.
BEHAVIOR - The fat insulates the axon from electrically charged
atoms (or ions) found in fluids that surround the
NERVOUS SYSTEM
nervous system.
- is the major instrument that integrates and - The myelin sheath minimizes leakage of the
coordinates all bodily activities. electrical current being carried along the axon,
- a system of nerves involved in thought processes, thereby allowing messages to be conducted more
heartbeat, visual-motor coordination. efficiently.
• Neurons – (or nerves) transmits messages, impulses, ▪ Myelination – part of the maturation
or signals from the sense organs to the brain and process that leads to a child’s ability to crawl
from the brain. and walk during the first year
- Specialized cells of the nervous system that conduct
impulses.
- We are born with more than 100 billion neurons,
most of which are in the brain.
▪ Glial cells – remove dead neurons and waste
products from the nervous system; nourish
and insulate neurons; form a fatty, insulating
substance called myelin; and play a role in
neural transmission of messages.
- We can think of neurons as the microscopic building
blocks of the nervous system.

KINDS OF NEURON

1. Sensory (Afferent) Neuron – transmits impulses

from the sense organs to the spinal cord and brain.
2. Motor (Efferent) Neuron – transmits impulses from
the spinal cord and brain to the affected organ
(muscles and glands).
- Other efferent neurons stimulate glands
3. Association / interconnecting neuron – transmit
impulses within the brain.
MAJOR PARTS OF A NEURON
1. Dendrites – receives impulses from another neuron
2. Cell body – contains the nucleus of the cell
3. Axon – carries messages to other neurons; ends in
small, bulb-shaped structures called axon terminals
or terminal buttons.
*Neurons carry messages in one direction only: from the
dendrites or cell body through the axon to axon
terminals. The messages are then transmitted from the
terminal buttons to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
• Neural impulses – messages that travel along
neurons are electrochemical in nature, Luigi Galvani
• Messages that travel within neurons at somewhere
between two (in non-myelinated neurons) and 225
miles an hour (in myelinated neurons).
• Chemical changes take place within neurons that
cause an electrical charge to be transmitted along
their lengths.
• Neurons and body fluids contain ions – positively or
negatively charged atoms.
• The difference in electrical charge readies, or
polarizes, a neuron for firing by creating an internal
negative charge in relation to the body fluid outside
the cell membrane.
• The electrical potential across the neutral membrane
when it is not responding to other neurons – its
resting potential – is about -70 millivolts in relation
to the body fluid outside the cell membrane.
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• The cell membrane in the area changes its Acetylcholine - Controls muscle contractions
permeability to allow positively charged sodium ions (ACh) - Excitatory at voluntary
to enders; thus, the area of entry becomes positively movements; inhibitory at the
charged, or depolarized, with respect to the outside. heart & other locations
• Action potential – the electrical impulse that - Prevalent in the hippocampus
provides the basis for the conduction of a neural - Deficiency can cause
impulse along an axon of a neuron Alzheimer’s disease – impaired
• When neurons fire, they transmit messages to other memory formation
neurons, muscles, or glands. However, they will not Serotonin - Mood, sleep, appetite,
fire unless the incoming messages combine to reach emotional arousal
a certain strength, which is defined as the threshold - Deficiencies have been linked
at which a neuron will fire. to eating disorders,
• All-or-none principle – every time a neuron fires, it alcoholism, depression,
transmits an impulse of the same strength; either a aggression, and insomnia
neuron fires or it doesn’t. Norepinephrine - Arousal, mood
• Neurons fire more often when they have been - Produced largely by neurons in
stimulated by larger number of other neurons. the brain stem and acts both as
• Refractory period – a few thousandths of a second a neurotransmitter and as a
after firing; a neuron is insensitive to messages from hormone
other neurons and will not fire. - Excitatory, speed up the
• Synapse – a junction where a neuron relays its heartbeat and other body
message to another neuron. processes and is involved in
- A synapse consists of an axon terminal from the general arousal, learning and
transmitting neuron, a dendrite, or the body of a memory, and eating
receiving neuron, and a fluid-filled gap between the - Excesses and deficiencies have
two that is called the synaptic cleft. been linked to mood disorders
• Sacs called synaptic vesicles in the axon terminals Dopamine - Perceive pleasure, voluntary
contain neurotransmitters – the chemical keys to movements, and learning and
communication. memory
- Each kind of neurotransmitter has a unique chemical - Deficiency can cause
structure, and each can fit into a specifically tailored Parkinson’s disease –
harbor, or receptor site, on the receiving cell. progressively lose control over
- “Loose” neurotransmitters are usually either broken muscles
down or reabsorbed by the axon terminal (a process - More receptor sites for
called reuptake). dopamine in an area of the
- Neurotransmitters are involved in physical processes brain that is involved in
(e.g., muscle contraction) and psychological emotional responding may
processes (e.g., thoughts and emotions) lead to schizophrenia
- Excesses or deficiencies of neurotransmitters have Endorphin - Pain relief
been linked to psychological disorders such as - Inhibitory
depression and schizophrenia. - “Endogenous morphine”;
• Neurotransmitters – chemical founds in the synaptic endogenous – developing from
vesicles that, when released, has an effect on the within
next cell, which causes the receiving cell to fire - Occur naturally in the brain
(excitatory) or stop firing (inhibitory). and in the bloodstream

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 - Similar to the narcotic - has 2 branches or divisions:
morphine in their function and sympathetic and
effects. parasympathetic nervous
- Increase our sense of system
competence, enhance the 2 DIVISIONS / BRANCHES OF THE AUTONOMIC NS
functioning of the immune Sympathetic Active during processes the
system, and be connected with division involve spending body energy
the pleasurable “runner’s from stored reserves, such as a
high.” fight-or-flight response.
Gamma- - Help calm anxiety reactions Parasympathetic Active during processes that
aminobutyric - Inhibitory division replenish reserves of energy
acid (GABA) - Deficiencies link to depression (eating).

DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

CENTRAL NERVOUS PERIPHERAL NERVOUS

SYSTEM SYSTEM
- Decision maker - Afferent and efferent
neurons
- Inputting / displaying or
transmitting
information
1. Brain 1. Somatic NS
2. Spinal Cord 2. Autonomic NS
• When we are afraid, the sympathetic division of the
2 MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ANS accelerates the heart rate.
Somatic NS - serves the skeletal muscles • When we relax, the parasympathetic division
and sense organs decelerates the heart rate.
- Transmits messages about • The parasympathetic division stimulates digestive
sights, sounds, smells, processes, but the sympathetic branch, which can be
temperature, body positions, activated by fear, inhibits (hinders) digestion.
and so on, to the central • The activities of the ANS are linked to various
nervous system emotions such as anxiety and love.
- control purposeful body
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYTEM
movements (raising a hand,
Spinal Cord - A true “information superhighway”
winking, etc) balance and
- A column of nerves as thick as a
posture
thumb.
Autonomic NS - smooth muscles and internal
- Transmits messages from sensory
organs
receptors to the brain and from the
- regulates the glands and
brain to muscles and glands
muscles of internal organs
throughout the body.
- heartbeat, respiration,
- Responds to some sources of
digestion, and dilation of the
external stimulation through spinal
pupils
reflexes.

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 - Spinal reflex – an unlearned
response to a stimulus that may
require only two neurons (a
sensory and a motor neuron); in
some reflexes, a third neuron
(interneuron), transmits the neural
impulse from the sensory neuron
through the spinal cord to the
motor neuron.
- Involved in reflexes
The spinal cord and the brain contain gray matter and
white matter.
- Gray matter – consists of non-myelinated
neurons, some of which are involved in spinal
reflexes while other send their axons to the brain.
- White matter – composed of bundles of longer,
myelinated (and thus whitish) axons that carry
messages to and from the brain.
THE HUMAN BRAIN
- Major organ of the body
- A specialized organ that is responsible for all
thoughts and movements of the body.
- Made up of nerve cells which interact with the rest
of the body through the spinal cord and nervous
system.
- These cells relate information back to specific
centers of the brain where it can be processed, and
reactions can be generated.
• Several chemicals are also located in the brain that
help the body maintain homeostasis. Keeping these
chemicals balance and the nerve cells firing properly
are essential to healthy brain function.
• The brain’s control mechanisms cross over from
right to left, and vice versa, as they descend into the
body.
• Brain injuries can be connected with changes in
behavior and mental processes.
• Electrical stimulation of the brain has also shown
that parts of the brain are connected with specific
kinds of sensations (such as light / sound) or motor
activities (movement of an arm or leg).
MAJOR PARTS OF THE BRAIN
1. Hindbrain – where the spinal cord rises to meet the
brain.
• Medulla (Brain Stem) – heartbeat (heart rate),
breathing (respiration), blood circulation (blood
pressure), consciousness
- In which pathways pass through to connect
the spinal cord to higher levels of the brain.
- Also plays roles in sleeping, sneezing,
coughing.
• Pons – “bridge”; bulge in the hindbrain that lies
forward the medulla
- Bundles of nerves that pass through it
- Transmit information about body
movement and is involved in functions
related to attention, sleep and arousal, and
respiration.
• Cerebellum – “little brain”; movement and balance
- Has 2 hemispheres that are involved in
maintaining balance and in controlling
motor (muscle) behavior.
- Key to organizing information that enables
you to engage in movements.
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 - Injury to the cerebellum may impair motor
coordination and cause stumbling and loss
of muscle tone.
2. Midbrain
- Mesencephalon (Greek word “mesos” - middle,
“enkephalos” - brain)
- A portion of the central nervous system associated
with vision, hearing, body movement, sleep/wake,
arousal (alertness), temperature regulation.
▪ Reticular formation – ascends through the
midbrain into the lower part of the forebrain
- involved in attention, sleep, and arousal
- injury may result into a coma
3. Forebrain
- Thought reasoning, voluntary movement, language,
etc.
FOREBRAIN STRUCTURES
1. Thalamus
- Serves as a relay station for impulses (sensory
stimulation) traveling to and from the spinal cord,
brain stem, cerebellum, and cerebrum
- It has an important function in directing sensory
input to the appropriate place in the cerebral
cortex.
- Two joined egg-shaped structures.
- Regulates sleep and attention in coordination with
other brain structures, including the reticular
formation.
2. Hypothalamus
- Is a section of the brain responsible for the
production of many of the body’s essential
hormones (chemical substances that help control
different cells and organs).
- The hormones from the hypothalamus govern
physiologic functions such as regulation of body
temperature, thirst, hunger, sleep, sex drive,
emotions, and the release of other hormones within
the body.
- This area of the brain houses the pituitary gland and
other glands in the body.
- Vital in the regulation of body temperature,
concentration of fluids, storage of nutrients, and
motivation and emotion.
- Among lower animals, stimulation or various areas
may trigger instinctual behaviors such as fighting,
mating, or nest building.
• Our responses to messages from the hypothalamus
are less automatic and relatively more influenced
by higher brain functions—that is, cognitive factors
such as thought, choice, and value systems.
• The limbic system forms a fringe (border) along the
inner edge of the cerebrum and is fully evolved only
in mammals.
- Made up of several structures, including
the amygdala, hippocampus, and parts of
the hypothalamus.
- Involved in memory and emotions and in
the drives of hunger, sex, and aggression.
3. Amygdala
- Responsible for the perception of emotions such as
anger, fear, sadness, as well as the controlling of
aggression, vigilance.
- It is also involved in learning and memory.
- It behaves something like a spotlight, focusing
attention on matters that are novel and important to
know more about.
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- Helps to restore memories of events and emotions
so that an individual may be able to recognize similar
events in the future.
- The size of the amygdala is positively correlated
with increased aggression and physical behavior.
- In humans, also plays a role in sexual activity and sex
drive.
4. Hippocampus
- Deals with the formation of long-term memories
and spatial navigations.
- Can become damaged through oxygen deprivation
or hypoxia, infection, inflammation, and epilepsy.
- Individuals with hippocampal damage develop
Alzheimer’s disease, amnesia, memory loss, and
disorientation.
• People with hippocampal damage can retrieve old
memories but cannot permanently store new
information.
5. The Cerebral Cortex
- Plays a key role in memory, attention, perception,
awareness, thought, language, and consciousness.
- It is the largest portion of the brain and contains
parts which are responsible for most of the brain’s
function.
- The part of the brain that frees people from the
tyranny of genetic dictates and instinct
- Seat of thinking and language.
- Enables human to think deeply about the world and
to make decisions.
• Cerebrum – make up such a large part of the brain
- The cerebral cortex is the surface of the cerebrum; it
is wrinkled or convoluted, with ridges and valleys.
- The convolutions allow a great deal of surface area
to be packed into the brain – and surface area is
apparently connected with cognitive ability.
- Valleys in the cortex are called fissures.
- A key fissure almost divides the cerebrum in half
creating two hemispheres, the right and left
hemisphere.
- The hemispheres are connected by the corpus
callosum (“hard body”) – a bundle of some 200
million nerve fibers.
- It is divided into four sections:
Frontal lobe Thought, perception, memory
Parietal lobe Body sense, touch
Temporal lobe Smell, hearing
Occipital lobe Vision
• Somatosensory complex – area behind the central
fissure in the parietal lobe, which receives messages
from skin senses all over the body.
- These sensations include warmth and cold,
touch, pain, and movement.
• The left hemisphere controls, acts on, and receives
inputs from the right side of the body.
• The right hemisphere controls, acts on, and receives
inputs from the left side of the body.
• Motor cortex – the motor area of the cerebral
cortex, lies in the frontal lobe, just across the valley
of the central fissure from the somatosensory cortex.
THINKING, LANGUAGE, AND THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
• Association areas – areas of the cerebral cortex that
are not primarily involved in sensation or motor
activities.
- They make possible the breadth and depth
of human learning, thought, memory, and
language.
- The association areas in the prefrontal
region of the brain – that is, in the frontal
lobes, near the forehead – are the brain’s
executive center.
- Where we solve problems and make plans
and decisions.
- Provide the core of your working memory.
- Connected with various sensory areas in
the brain and can tap whatever sensory
information is needed or desired.
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 - The prefrontal region thus retrieves visual,
auditory, and other memories and
manipulates them.
• The left hemisphere of the brain contains language
function for nearly all right-handed people and for
two out of three left-handed people. However, the
brain remains “plastic” or changeable, through
about the age of 13.
• Two key language areas lie within the hemisphere of
the cortex that contains language functions (usually
the left hemisphere): Broca’s area and Wernicke’s
area.
• Damage to either area is likely to cause an aphasia –
that is, a disruption of the ability to understand or
produce language.
▪ Wernicke’s area – lies in the temporal lobe
near the auditory cortex.
- Responds mainly to auditory information
(sounds).
- Essential to understanding the
relationships between words and their
meanings.
▪ Broca’s area – is located in the frontal lobe,
near the section of the motor cortex that
controls the muscles of the tongue, throat,
and other areas of the face used when
speaking.
- Processes the information and relays it to
the motor cortex, which sends the signals
that cause muscles in your throat and
mouth to contract.
• A part of the brain called the angular gyrus lies
between the visual cortex and Wernicke’s area.
- Translates visual information, as in
perceiving written words, into auditory
information and sends it on to Wernicke’s
area.
LEFT BRAIN, RIGHT BRAIN?
• Research suggests that in right-handed individuals,
the left hemisphere is relatively more involved in
intellectual undertakings that require logical analysis
and problem solving, language and mathematical
computation.
• The other hemisphere (typically the right
hemisphere) is usually superior in visual -spatial
functions (it’s better at putting puzzles together),
recognition of faces, discrimination of colors,
aesthetic, and emotional responses, understanding
metaphors, and creative mathematical reasoning.
• Despite these differences, the hemispheres of the
brain do not act independently such that some
people are truly left-brained, and others are right-
brained.
• The functions of the left & right hemispheres
overlap to some degree, and they tend to respond
simultaneously as we focus our attention on one
thing or another.
• The origins of handedness may have a genetic
component.
• Being left-handed appears to provide a somewhat-
greater-than-average probability of language
problems, such as dyslexia and stuttering, and health
problems such as migraine headaches, and allergies.
• Left-handed people are more likely than right-
handed people to be numbered among the ranks of
gifted artists, musicians, and mathematicians.
• A number of people with severe cases of epilepsy
have split-brain operations in which much of the
corpus callosum is severed, to confine seizures to
one hemisphere of the cerebral cortex rather than
allowing a neutral tempest to reverberate.
• “Each hemisphere may have a ‘mind of its own.’”
(Joseph Bogen, 1969, 2000)
• People with split brains whose
eyes are closed may be able to
verbally describe an object
such as a key when they hold it
in one hand, but not when
they hold it in the other hand
(Michael Gazzaniga, APA,
2008).
DIVISIONS OF THE SPINAL CORD
1. Cervical – neck area
2. Thoracic – chest area
3. Lumbar – waist area
4. Sacral – hips area
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Endocrine Glands – secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream, which carries them to organs in
the body.
GLANDS LOCATION HORMONES FUNCTIONS
Pituitary Center of the brain, Growth hormone – regulates the growth - It activates, influences,
below the of muscles, bones, and glands. and controls the whole
hypothalamus endocrine system
Prolactin – regulates maternal behavior in - Work in close
lower mammals and stimulates production cooperation with the
of milk in women. hypothalamus
(“commander”)
Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone) – - “Master gland”
inhibits production of urine when the - Maintenance
body’s fluid levels are low; also connected
with stereotypical paternal behavior in
some mammals.
Oxytocin – stimulates labor in pregnant
women and is connected with maternal
behavior (cuddling and caring for young) in
some mammals.
Thyroids Alongside the Thyroxin – affects the body’s metabolism Regulates body metabolism.
trachea (the rate at which the body uses oxygen • Hypothyroidism – too little
and produces energy). thyroxin; can lead to
cretinism (a condition
characterized by stunted
growth and mental
retardation); feeling tired
and sluggish and may put on
weight.
• Hyperthyroidism – too
much thyroxin; excitability,
insomnia, weight loss.
Paratyhroids Within the thyroids Parathormone Regulates level of calcium and
phosphorus.
Adrenals Above the kidneys - Have an outer layer, or
cortex, and an inner
core, or medulla
- Regulated by the
pituitary hormone
ACTH
(adrenocorticotrophic
hormone).
Adrenal Medulla Adrenalin (epinephrine) – gives extra strength during emergency situations;
intensifies emotions and is central to the experience of fear and anxiety.

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 Norepinephrine – acts and produced as neurotransmitter in the brain.

The sympathetic branch of the ANS causes the adrenal medulla to release a
mixture of epinephrine and norepinephrine that helps arouse the body to
cope with threats and stress.
Adrenal Cortex Cortin – regulates certain adult sex characteristics

Corticosteroids (cortical steroids) – regulate the heartbeat, increase

resistance to stress, promote muscle development, and cause the liver to
release stored sugar, making more energy available in emergencies.
Islets of On top of the Insulin – regulates blood sugar level
Langerhans pancreas
Gonads Testes Testosterone Male / female sex
Ovaries Estrogen characteristics
Progesterone Uterine development
Thymus Chest cavity Thymosin Immunologic competence
Pineal Hemispheres of the Melatonin – helps regulate the sleep-wake Helps in regulating growth and
brain cycle and may affect the onset of puberty; development.
may also be connected with aging; mild
sedative.

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Transes by Karylle Mae L. Macorol | DO NOT DISTRIBUTE WITHOUT CONSENT
 Introduction to Psychology | APY_1101 | Chapter 4

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

SENSATION

• A condition or experience resulting from the

stimulation of the sense organs.

SENSE ORGAN STIMULUS RECEPTOR

Vision Eyes Light Retina
Olfaction Nose Odor Epithelium
THE EYE
Audition Ears Sound Organ of corti
Gustation Tongue Soluble Taste buds PARTS OF THE EYE
particles in Iris Colored part of the eye
saliva
Touch Skin Different skin Cutaneous Cornea Transparent membrane over the
sensitivities adipose tissues iris
Pupil Black circular opening in the iris
• Receptors – are the means by which information that lets light in

presented as one form of energy, for example, light,

Sclera White part of the eye
is converted to information in the form used by the
Conjunctiva A thin layer of tissue that covers the
nervous system, that is, impulses traveling along
entire front of the eye
nerve fibers.
- Receptors are specialized forms of neurons.
• Lens helps focus light on the back of the eye.
• Transduction – the process of converting outside
• Most of the eye is filled with a clear gel called the
stimuli (ex. sound) into neural activity.
vitreous.
• Adaptation – tendency of sensory receptor cells
• Retina is the inside lining of the eye.
to become less responsive to a stimulus that is
• There are two types of photoreceptors in the
unchanging.
retina: rods and cones.
• Habituation – tendency of the brain to stop
• The cones are sensitive to color and are located in
attending to constant unchanging information.
the part of the retina called the fovea – where the
• Absolute threshold – is the lowest level of
light is focused by the lens.
stimulation that a person can consciously detect.
• The rods are not sensitive to color but have
greater sensitivity to light. These cells are located
SENSE ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD
around the fovea and are responsible for
Vision (sight) A candle flame at 30 miles on a clear, dark
peripheral vision and night vision.
night
Olfaction One drop of perfume diffused throughout • The eye is connected to the brain through the
(smell) a three-room apartment optic nerve.
Audition The tick of a watch 20 feet away in a quiet
(hearing) room EYE DEFECTS
Gustation 1 teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water
(taste) Color blindness - A common abnormality in
Cutaneous A bee’s wing falling on the cheek from 1 or "Daltonism" human vision that makes it
sensitivities centimeter above impossible to differentiate colors
accurately.
 - One type of color blindness • Telepathy – refers to the ability to read other
results in the inability to persons thoughts. Telepathy allows a person to
distinguish red and green. communicate with one or more people using their
Blepharitis Inflammation of the eyelids mind.
Stye Red, painful lump on the edge of
• Telekinesis – the ability to move objects just using
your eyelid
the mind.
Cataract Is the clouding of the eye’s • Clairvoyance – the ability to see objects or events
internal lens. It can cause blurred that are happening to someone else. Similar to
vision. telepathy, clairvoyance refers to the ability to gain
Conjunctivitis Infection or inflammation of knowledge about a person or event.
conjunctiva
Corneal A scratch on the cornea PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTION
abrasion
a) Gestalt Principle: Similarity
Keratitis Is inflammation or infection of the
• The principle of similarity states that things which
cornea
share visual characteristics such as shape, size, or
Diabetic Is caused by High blood sugar that
retinopathy damages the blood vessels in the color will be seen as belonging together.
eye • Refers to the tendency to perceive things that look
Hyperopia Farsightedness similar as being part of the group.
Myopia Nearsightedness

PERCEPTION
• The process of recognizing and interpreting the
things that we sense in order to understand the
environment.
• Extrasensory Perception or ESP – also called sixth
sense, includes acquisition of information not
gained through the recognized physical senses b) Gestalt Principle: Proximity
(i.e., sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch) but • Proximity means nearness.
sensed with the mind. • The principle of proximity states that things which
• Parapsychology – a branch of psychology that are closer together will be seen as belonging
deals with the investigation of paranormal and together or as part of the same group.
psychic phenomena which include telepathy, • The Gestalt law of proximity states that "objects
precognition, clairvoyance, psychokinesis, near- or shapes that are close to one another appear to
death experiences, reincarnation, apparitional form groups".
experiences, and other paranormal activities. • Even if the shapes, sizes, and objects are radically
different, they will appear as a group if they are
TYPES OF EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION close together.
• Precognition – refers to the ability to see the
future.
- Nostradamus is one of the most famous people
known for his predictions, as he has reportedly
predicted several events throughout history that
occurred long after his death.

• Retrocognition – refers to the ability to see the

past.

c) Gestalt Principle: Continuity
• This Gestalt law states that we tend to continue
shapes beyond their ending points.
• The tendency to perceive things as simply as
possible with a continuous pattern rather than
with a complex, broken-up patterns.
d) Gestalt Principle: Closure
• The principle of closure applies when we tend to
see complete figures even when part of the
information is missing.
e) Gestalt Principle: Simplicity
• The principle of simplicity indicates that our mind
perceives everything in its simplest form.
• We tend to perceive things that are simple.
f) Gestalt Principle: Symmetry
• Symmetrical elements are perceived as part of the
same group.
g) The Principle of Figure-Ground
• The “figure” is the element in focus, while the
“ground” is the background behind the figure.
• Contours – “belong” to the figure
• Your perception of which is the figure, and which is
the ground depends on how your mind perceives it.
h) Perceptual Constancy
• Size – the tendency to perceive the size as a constant.
• Shape – the tendency to perceive the shape of an
object as constant, even when there is change in
the retinal image.
• Brightness – the tendency to perceive the size of
an object as larger, when the color is light or
bright.
• Location – the tendency to perceive the location
of an object, even there is change in the location
or position of the perceiver.
i) Perceptual Contrast
• We tend to easily perceive things that are
extremely different or contrasting such as in size,
shape etc.
j) Depth Perception – is the ability to see three-
dimensional space.
• Binocular Cues – cues for perceiving depth based
on both eyes.
• Monocular Cues – cues for perceiving depth
based on one eye only.
▪ Relative Size – in two similar objects, if the size
of one object is smaller, the smaller object is
perceived as farther away.
▪ Relative Height – in two similar objects, if the
height of one object is higher, the higher
object is perceived as higher or farther away.
▪ Interposition – if one object seems to be
blocking another object, people assume that
the blocked object is behind the first one and
therefore farther away.
▪ Linear Perspective – the tendency to perceive
lines that are parallel to seem to converge.
▪ Aerial or Atmospheric Perspective – the
farther away an object is, the hazier the
object will appear.
▪ Texture Gradient – the closer the object, the
distinctively textured. The farther, the texture
becomes smaller and finer.
Introduction to Psychology | APY_1101 | Chapter 5
INTELLIGENCE
- A general mental capability that involves the ability
to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly,
comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly, and learn
from experience.
- Is the underlying ability to understand the world and
cope with its challenges.
- Consists of one or more factors.
- Factor theories suggest that intelligence is made of a
number of mental abilities.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE INTELLIGENCE
1. Genetic Influences
• Studies generally suggest than the heritability of
intelligence is between 40% to 60%
- - To visualize accurately and abstractly
2. Environmental Influences
• The home environment and styles of parenting
affect intelligence. It is the most important predictor
of IQ scores.
• Socioeconomic and class differences are also linked
to IQ scores and academic achievement.
• The level of education contributes to intelligence.
APPROXIMATE DISTRIBUTION OF IQ SCORES
▪ IQ scores cluster around the average IQ of 100.
▪ Only 4% of the population have IQ scores of
above 130 (very superior) or below 70
(intellectually deficient).
THE MEASURE OF INTELLIGENCE
1. Individual / Group Intelligence Tests
• Highlight individual’s strength and weaknesses, as
well as measure overall intellectual functioning.
• Tests provide only one source of information.
• IQ scores cannot adequately define special abilities
and talents.
2. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
• Yielded a score called mental age (MA) – which
shows the intellectual level at which a child is
functioning.
• Intelligence Quotient – reflects the relationship
between a child’s mental age and chronological age
(CA).
3. Wechsler Scales
• Measures different intellectual task.
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
1. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
a. Verbal-linguistic intelligence
- Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the
sounds, meaning, and rhythms of words.
b. Logical-mathematical intelligence
- Ability to think conceptually and abstractly
- Capacity to discern logical and numerical
patterns.
c. Spatial-visual intelligence
- Capacity to think in images and pictures
d. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
- Ability to control one’s body movements and to
handle objects skillfully/
e. Musical intelligences
- Ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch,
and timber.
f. Interpersonal intelligence
- Capacity to detect and respond appropriately to
the moods, motivations, and desires of others.
g. Intrapersonal intelligence
- Capacity to be self-aware and in tune with
feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes.
h. Naturalist intelligence
- Ability to recognize and categorize plants,
animals, and other objects in nature.
i. Existential intelligence
- Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions
about human existence.
2. Charles Spearman’s G and S Factors
• G – for general intelligence or broad reasoning and
problem-solving abilities.
• S – for specific abilities.
• Spearman suggested that people tend to excel in
one area and excel in other but some people ten to
be superior in specific areas.
3. Louis Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities
• Contain the abilities measured on the most widely
used intelligence tests such as visual and spatial
abilities, perceptual speed, numerical ability, verbal
meaning, memory, word fluency, deductive
reasoning, and inductive reasoning.
Introduction to Psychology | APY_1101 | Chapter 6

LEARNING, MEMORY, AND THINKING

LEARNING

• Any relatively permanent change in behavior

produced by an experience.
• Occurs most rapidly on continuous reinforcement.

MAJOR TYPES OF LEARNING

1. Classical Conditioning
• Russian psychologist Ivan Parlov
• An association of one event with another that TYPES OF MEMORY
results in a pattern of behavior.
• Sensory Memory
2. Operant Conditioning
• Short-term Memory
• B.F. Skinner
• Long-term Memory
• Takes place as a consequence of behavior.
- Divided into 2 main types: explicit (or declarative)
3. Social Learning Theory
memory and implicit (procedural) memory.
• Albert Bandura
▪ Declarative Memory
• Suggests that people learn from one another via
- “knowing what”
observation, imitation, and modeling.
- Memory of facts and events
4. Law of Effect
- Refers to those memories that can be
• Edward L. Thorndike
consciously recalled or declared.
• Suggests that responses that produce a satisfying
- Sometimes called explicit memory since it
effect in a particular situation become more likely to
consists of information that is explicitly stored
occur again while responses that produce a
and retrieved.
discomforting effect become less likely to occur
- Can be further sub-divided into episodic and
again.
semantic memory.
MEMORY - Declarative memories are encoded by the
hippocampus.
• The process of maintaining information over time
▪ Procedural Memory
through encoding, storing, and retrieving.
- “knowing how”
THREE STAGES OF MEMORY - The memory of skills and how to do things,
particularly the use of objects or movements of
Encoding Putting information into memory. the body such as brushing teeth, etc.
Storing Holding onto information for some - Typically acquired through repetition and
period of time. practice.
Retrieving Getting memory out of storage. • Forgetting – inability to retrieve, recall, or organize
information.

EXCEPTIONAL FORMS OF MEMORIES

Memorists Individuals with exceptional memory

Eidetikers Individuals who possess eidetic
imagery power.
 Memory Where the memory breaks down such 2. Inner Speech and Movement
Disorder as amnesia. - Involves inner speech and implicit muscular
movements (i.e., we talk to ourselves when we
think).
FORMS OF AMNESIA 3. Conceptual Thinking
1. Anterograde Amnesia - Thinking takes place through concepts.
- Inability to form new permanent memories like - Concepts are classification of objects, events, or
remembering the name of their physicians. people.
2. Retrograde Amnesia - Prototypes are best example of the concept.
- Inability to reproduce and recall pieces of 4. Verbal Thinking
information learned prior to the amnesia. - Thinking with and about words.
3. Psychogenic Amnesia - Learning to attach word labels to things and
- A rare form of amnesia which is a memory disorder concepts.
brought about by emotionally disturbing events. 5. Learning Concepts
- Forming concepts by analyzing our experiences and
identifying similarities among various objects.
THEORIES OF FORGETTING • Creative Thinking
- The ability to discover novel solutions to problems
1. Interference Theory
or to produce novel works.
- The cause of forgetting is information learned earlier
- Creativity is when the person comes up with a variety
or later.
of plausible solutions for creating the unusual.
2. Decay Theory
- Due to lapse of time.
3. Retrieval Based Forgetting
- The memory trace is present, but one just cannot
bring out the information (esp. if the cues are
absent).
4. Storage Based Forgetting
- Due to the distortion of learned information in the
long-term memory like if alterations and changes
occurred.
5. Motivated Forgetting
- A purposeful or voluntary process of blocking the
information learned.

THINKING

• The manipulation of mental representations of

information.
• Everything the conscious mind does which include
perception, mental arithmetic, remembering, or
conjuring up an image.
• Simply equates to conscious cognitive processes.

ELEMENTS OF THINKING

1. Imagery Thinking
- Consists of imagining or visualizing things.