NEURONS is connected to muscles, glands and
organs throughout the body.
What are NEURONS?
￮ Neurons
￮ A nerve cell, the basic building block
of the nervous system. It is a
specialized cell that receives,
processes, and transmit signals
through neurotransmitters. There
are 86 billion neurons in the brain.
￮
Functions of Neurons
Neurons send signals using action
potentials- shift in the neuron’s electric
potential caused by the flow of ions in and
out of the neural membrane.
What do NEURONS look like ?
STRUCTURE OF NEURON
Neurons can only be seen using
microscope and can be split into three
parts:
Soma – This portion of the neuron receives
information. It contains the cell’s nucleus.
Dendrites – these thin filaments carry
information from other neurons to the
soma. They are the “input” part of the cell.
Axon – this long projection carries
information from the soma and sends it off
to other cells. This is the “output” part of
the cell.
￮ Action Potential- A neural impulse,
brief electrical charge that travels
down the axon of the neuron.
￮ Resting potential- The state of
neuron when it is at rest and
capable in generating an action
potential.
Three Different Type of Neurons
￮ MOTOR NEURONS
￮ Motor neurons are neurons found
Central Nervous System (CNS), that
￮ SENSORY NEURONS
￮ Are the nerve cells that are activated
by sensory input from the
environment.
￮ INTERNEURONS
￮ Refers to any neuron that acts as an
intermediary in passing signals
between two other neurons.
Interneurons do not have motor or
sensory function they just act to
pass on information.
￮
2 kinds of transmissions
chemical transmission
￮ Chemical transmission
involves release of chemical
messengers known as
neurotransmitters. Schematic of
synaptic/chemical transmission. An
action potential travels down the
axon of the presynaptic—sending—
cell and arrives at multiple axon
terminals branching off from the
axon. The axon terminal is adjacent
to the dendrite of the
postsynaptic—receiving—cell. This
spot of close connection between
axon and dendrite is the synapse.
￮ At electrical synapses, unlike
chemical synapses, there is a direct
physical connection between the
presynaptic neuron and the
postsynaptic neuron. This
connection takes the form of a
channel called a gap junction, which
allows current—ions—to flow
directly from one cell into another.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
- are chemical messengers that
transmit signals from a neuron to a
target cell across a synapse.

Divided into three principal classes:
• Acetylcholine
• Biogenic Amines- includes
Dopamine, Epinephrine,
Norepinephrine, Serotonin
• Amino Acids- includes Glutamate,
Glycine, g-Aminobutiric Acid (GABA)
inhibitor
ACETYLCHOLINE
Acetylcholine (ACh) is found
throughout the nervous system. It is
the only neurotransmitter that
sends and receives information
between the motor neurons and
voluntary muscles (muscles you
have conscious control over, such as
the biceps).
NOREPINEPHRINE
Norepinephrine (NE) is another
neurotransmitter found to regulate
behaviour. NE contributes to the
modulation of mood and arousal,
and is commonly referred to as the
stress hormone. When you are in a
stressful situation it is NE that is
spread all over the body to prepare
for the situation.
Dopamine
• is a chemical that ferries
information between neurons
• it regulates and helps to regulate
movement, attention, learning and
emotional responses.
What would happen if you have a low level
of dopamine?
- DEPRESSION
- PARKINSON’S DISEASE
What would happen if you have a high
level of dopamine?
- ADDICTION
- SCHIZOPHRENIA
- BIPOLAR
Activities that will bring your dopamine
level normally in a natural way.
• Listen to music that gives us energy
and positivity
• Get a massage
• Exercise regualarly
Serotonin
- is a powerful neurotransmitter that
regulates a wide variety of important
functions in the body.
-regulates sleep, eating, mood and pain
regulation.
Lack of Serotonin cause:
- INSOMIA
- POOR APPETITE
Causes or contributes to serotonin
deficiency:
• Prolonged period of stress
• Genetic factors
• Poor diet
Ways to increase naturally you serotonin
• get a consistent good sleep
Epinephrine
Also known as adrenaline, is a
medication and hormone. As a
medication, it is used to treat a
number of conditions, including
anaphylaxis, cardiac arrest, and
superficial bleeding.
Glutamate
Is the most plentiful
neurotransmitter found in the nervous
system where it plays a role in cognitive
functions such as memory and learning.
Excessive amounts of glutamate can cause
excitotoxicity resulting in cellular death.
This excitotoxicity caused by glutamate
build up is associated with some diseases
and brain injuries including Alzheimers
disease, stroke and epileptic seizures.
GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid)
 Is an amino acid produced naturally
in the brain. GABA functions as a
neurotransmitter, facilitating
communication among brain cells.
GABA’S big role in the body is to
reduce the activity of neurons in the
brain and central nervous system,
which can make a person feel more
tranquil and give him/her sense of
well being.

Low GABA activity in the body can result
in:
- ANXIETY
- NERVOUSNESS
- EXCESSIVE WORRY
GLYCINE (2-Aminoacetic Acid)
Glycine isn’t just an amino acid but it also a
neurotransmitter that has its own signalling
system. It’s considered one of the most
important inhibitory neurotransmitters. In
other words, glycine keeps our brain calm.
Glycine help several mental health
problems including: DEPRESSION,
INSOMNIA, SCHIZOPHRENIA
Central Nervous System
The central nervous system consists of the
brain and spinal cord. It is referred to as
"central" because it combines information
from the entire body and coordinates
activity across the whole organism.
The Brain
The brain is the most complex organ in the
human body. The brain is the central
control module of the body and coordinates
activity. From physical motion to the
secretion of hormones, the creation of
memories, and the sensation of emotion.
The brain is roughly split into four lobes:
Temporal lobe
• Important for processing sensory
input and assigning it emotional
meaning.
• It is also involved in laying down
long-term memories. Some aspects
of language perception are also
housed here.
Temporal lobe
- Understanding language
- Memory
- Hearing
Occipital lobe
- visual processing region of the brain,
housing the visual cortex.
- Interprets vision
- (color, light, movement)
Parietal lobe
 Sense of touch, pain, temperature
(sensory strip)
 Interprets signals from vision,
hearing, motor, sensory and
memory
 Spatial and visual perception
Frontal lobe
positioned at the front of the brain, the
frontal lobe contains the majority of
dopamine-sensitive neurons and is involved
in attention, reward, short-term memory,
motivation, and planning.

 Personality, behavior, emotions

 Judgment, planning, problem solving
  Speech: speaking and writing
 Body movement (motor strip)
 Intelligence, concentration, self
awareness
BRAIN REGIONS
Hypothalamus
• Basal ganglia- involved in the
control of voluntary motor
movements, procedural learning,
and decisions about which motor
activities to carry out. Diseases that
affect this area include Parkinson's
disease and Huntington's disease.
Cerebellum
• mostly involved in precise motor
control, but also in language and
attention. If the cerebellum is
damaged, the primary symptom is
disrupted motor control, known as
ataxia.
Broca's area
 this small area on the left side of the
brain (sometimes on the right in left-
handed individuals) is important in
language processing. When
damaged, an individual finds it
difficult to speak but can still
understand speech. Stuttering
is sometimes associated with an
underactive Broca's area.
Corpus callosum
• a broad band of nerve fibers that
join the left and right hemispheres.
It is the largest white matter
structure in the brain and allows the
two hemispheres to
communicate. Dyslexic children have
smaller corpus callosums; left-
handed people, ambidextrous
people, and musicians typically
have larger ones.
Medulla oblongata
• extending below the skull, it is
involved in involuntary functions,
such as vomiting, breathing,
sneezing, and maintaining the
correct blood pressure.
• sitting just above the brain
stem and roughly the size of an
almond, the hypothalamus secretes
a number of neurohormones and
influences body temperature
control, thirst, and hunger.
Thalamus
• positioned in the center of the brain,
the thalamus receives sensory and
motor input and relays it to the rest
of the cerebral cortex. It is involved
in the regulation of consciousness,
sleep, awareness, and alertness.
Amygdala
• two almond-shaped nuclei deep
within the temporal lobe. They are
involved in decision-making,
memory, and emotional responses;
particularly negative emotions.
SPINAL CORD
• The spinal cord, running almost the
full length of the back, carries
information between the brain and
body, but also carries out other
tasks.
• From the brainstem, where the
spinal cord meets the brain, 31
spinal nerves enter the cord.
• Along its length, it connects with the
nerves of the peripheral nervous
system (PNS) that run in from the
skin, muscles, and joints.
Central glial cells
• Also called neuroglia, glial cells are
often called support cells for
 neurons. In the brain, they
outnumber nerve cells 10 to 1.
• Without glial cells, developing
nerves often lose their way and
struggle to form functioning
synapses.
• Glial cells are found in both the CNS
and PNS but each system has
different types.
Astrocytes
these cells have numerous projections and
anchor neurons to their blood supply. They
also regulate the local environment by
removing excess ions and recycling
neurotransmitters.
Oligodendrocytes
responsible for creating the myelin sheath
— this thin layer coats nerve cells, allowing
them to send signals quickly and efficiently.
Ependymal cells
• lining the spinal cord and the brain's
ventricles (fluid-filled spaces), these
create and secrete cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) and keep it circulating
using their whip-like cilia.
Radial glia
• act as scaffolding for new nerve cells
during the creation of the embryo's
nervous system.
CRANIAL NERVES
• The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of
nerves that arise directly from the
brain and pass through holes in the
skull rather than traveling along the
spinal cord. These nerves collect and
send information between the brain
and parts of the body – mostly the
neck and head.
• Of these 12 pairs, the olfactory and
optic nerves arise from the forebrain
and are considered part of the
central nervous system
Olfactory nerves (cranial nerve I)
• transmit information about odors
from the upper section of the nasal
cavity to the olfactory bulbs on the
base of the brain.
Optic nerves (cranial nerve II)
• carry visual information from the
retina to the primary visual nuclei of
the brain. Each optic nerve consists
of around 1.7 million nerve fibers.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES
• Trauma- depending on the site of
the injury, symptoms can vary
widely from paralysis to mood
disorders.
• Infections- some micro-organisms
and viruses can invade the CNS;
these include fungi, such as
cryptococcal meningitis; protozoa,
including malaria; bacteria, as is the
case with leprosy, or viruses.
• Degeneration- in some cases, the
spinal cord or brain can degenerate.
One example is Parkinson's disease
which involves the gradual
degeneration of dopamine-
producing cells in the basal ganglia.
Structural defects
• the most common examples are
birth defects; including anencephaly,
where parts of the skull, brain, and
scalp are missing at birth.
• Tumors- both cancerous and
noncancerous tumors can impact
parts of the central nervous system.
Both types can cause damage and
yield an array of symptoms
depending on where they develop.
Autoimmune disorders
• in some cases, an individual's
immune system can mount an attack
on healthy cells. For instance, acute
disseminated encephalomyelitis is
characterized by an immune
 response against the brain and
spinal cord, attacking myelin (the
nerves' insulation) and, therefore,
destroying white matter.
• Stroke- a stroke is an interruption of
blood supply to the brain; the
resulting lack of oxygen causes
tissue to die in the affected area.
2.) Anterior – produces hormones that
stimulate the thyroid and adrenal glands in
which each control specific behavior .
a.) Somatotrophins – growth hormones
b.) Gonadotrophins – involved in sexual
behavior
Pituitary Glands
Anterior Lobe - produces the following
hormones, which are regulated by the
hypothalamus:

Growth hormone: Stimulates growth of

“Hormones and Glands” bone and tissue.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone
“Hormones and Glands” (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to
ENDOCRINE GLANDS produce thyroid hormones.
GROUP 5
“Hormones and Glands” Adrenocorticotropin hormone
 Glands – are specialized groups of cells (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal gland to
or organs that secrete produce several related steroid
chemical substance/s hormones.

TWO TYPES OF GLANDS Luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-

1.) Exocrine Glands – glands with ducts stimulating hormone
(FSH): Hormones that control sexual
function and production of the
2.) Endocrine Glands – glands without ducts sex steroids, estrogen
- glands that secrete and progesterone in females or
chemical substances into the testosterone in males.
bloodstream or
tissues of the body. Prolactin: Hormone that stimulates milk
- the chemical production in females.
substances that endocrine glands secrete are
what we call HORMONES.
Posterior lobe - produces the following
“Hormones and Glands” hormones, which are not regulated by
the hypothalamus
 Hormones – messengers that are
responsible for telling some parts of the Antidiuretic hormone
body to do something or to stop doing (vasopressin): Controls water loss by
something. the kidneys
- can influence
someone’s behavior Oxytocin: Contracts the uterus during
dramatically. childbirth and stimulates milk production
 Pituitary Glands – most importaant
endocrine gland The hormones secreted by the
- body’s master gland posterior pituitary are actually produced
Endocrine system and pituitary system in the brain and carried to the pituitary
are crucially involved in DEPRESSION. gland through nerves. They are stored in
the pituitary gland.
“Hormones and Glands”
PITUITARY GLAND IS DIVIDED INTO
TWO LOBES:
1.) Posterior
Pancreas
an elongated organ located toward
the back of the abdomen behind the
stomach.
The pancreas has digestive and hormonal
functions. One part of the pancreas, the
exocrine pancreas, secretes digestive
enzymes. The other part of the pancreas,
the endocrine pancreas, secretes hormones
called insulin and glucagon.

 Insulin – regulate the use of sugar

and storage of carbohydrates
 Glucagon – acts synergistically with
insulin.
Thyroid Gland
Substance Secreted: Thyroxin

Effects: Regulates metabolic rates

Parathyroid Gland
Substance Secreted: Parathyroid hormone

Effects: Regulates calcium level

Pineal Gland which is sometimes referred

to as the pineal body or epiphysis.
Substance Secreted: Melatonin
Effects: Regulates reproduction and growth

Adrenal Cortex
Substance Secreted: Steroids