CHAPTER 1 STIMULI 刺激 AND RESPONSE 反应

THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM 神经系统

1 The human nervous system coordinates 协 调 the
body activities by sending messages 发出信息 in the
form of impulses 脉冲 in response to stimuli 刺激.

2 The human nervous system is divided into 分成 two:

central nervous system 中枢神经系统 and peripheral
外周 nervous system.
3. The central nervous system is made up of the brain
脑 and spinal cord 脊椎神经.
4. The peripheral nervous system consists
(a) 12 pairs of cranial nerves 脑神经 that connect the
brain to sensory 感觉 organs and internal 内部 organs.
(b) 31 pairs of spinal nerves 脊神经 that connect the
spinal cord to skeletal muscles.骨骼肌
3. The function of the human nervous system
• Detects 检测 stimuli
• Sends information 信息 in the form of impulse 脉冲
• Interprets 诠释 impulses
• Produces appropriate 适当的 responses

The pathway 途径 from Stimulus to Response

1 The nervous system detects and responds towards stimuli.
2 An organism will respond when a stimulus is detected.
3 This action is known as a response.
4 A sensory organ has receptors 接受器 which are sensitive towards stimuli.
5 The stimulus will stimulate receptors at the sensory organ to produce nerve impulses. Nerve impulses are
electrical signals.电信号
6 Nerve impulses move along the nerves to the brain.
7 The brain receives, processes 处理 the nerve impulses, and decides 决定 on a suitable response.
8 The brain then transmits 输送 nerve impulses through the nerve to the effector.效应器
9 An effector is the part of the body which carries out a response, for example, muscles and glands 腺.
10 The pathway from the stimulus until a response is produced is shown in Figure 1.2.

Type of Response
1 Our body carries out wo types of responses, that is, voluntary action 自愿行动 and involuntary 非自愿 action.

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2 A voluntary action is an action which is voluntarily controlled by a person. Example: walking and talking.
All voluntary actions are controlled by the brain.

3 An involuntary action is an action which occurs automatically, unconsciously 不自觉地 and cannot be
controlled by the will 意愿 of a person.
4. Involuntary actions are divided into two groups:
(a) Actions controlled by the medulla oblongata 延脑 like the heartbeat 心跳, breathing and peristalsis.蠕动
(b) Reflex actions 反射动作 involve the spinal cord for example removing the hand when it touches a hot
kettle or withdrawing 收回 the leg when one steps on a nail. Example: beating of the heart and breathing.

In bright 明亮 light, the size of the pupil 瞳孔 becomes smaller to reduce the amount of light entering the eye.
This is important to prevent damage to the retina 视网膜 caused by too much light entering the pupil.
In dim 暗淡 light, the size of the pupil becomes bigger to enable more light to enter the eye to get a clearer 更
清晰 vision.视线

Stimuli and Responses in Humans

The Structure and Function of the Eye
1 The eye is the sensory organ for sight which is sensitive to light stimulus.
2 The wall of the eye ball consists of three layers:
(a) Sclera (outermost layer) 巩膜
(b) Choroid (middle layer) 脉络膜
(c) Retina (inner most layer)视网膜

The Structure and function of the Eye

1. The eye is a sensory organ that is sensitive to light.
2. The eyeball is lined with fatty tissues 脂肪组织 and has three pairs of muscles to help its movements.
3. The tear glands 泪腺 produce tears 眼泪 which help to clean and lubricate 润滑 the eye. The lashes 眼睫毛
on the eyelid 眼皮 can prevent dirt from entering 进入 the eye.
4. The function of each part of the eye is summarized in the table.

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 Structure Function
Sclera 巩膜
• Maintains 保持 the shape of the eyeball
• White-coloured layer
• Protects 保护 the eyeball 眼球
• Tough 坚韧 and opaque 不透明的
Cornea 眼角膜
• At the front of 前面 the eye • Refracts 折射 light onto the retina 视网膜
• A curved 弧形的 transparent 透明的 layer of sclera
Choroid 脉络膜 • Supplies 提供 oxygen and nutrients to the eye
• A dark layer (middle part), has black pigment • Absorbs 吸收 light
• Has many blood vessels 血管 • Prevents light reflection 反射 in the eye
Conjunctiva 结膜
• Front layer of the cornea • Protects the cornea
• Thin and transparent membrane
Iris 虹膜 • Controls the size of the pupil and the amount 数量 of
• The coloured part of the eye light entering the eye
• Extension 延伸 from the choroid layer • Gives colour to the eye
Pupil 瞳孔
• In front of the eye lens 目镜
• Enables light to enter the eye
• A narrow 小 opening 孔 that is surrounded by the
iris
Eye lens 目镜
• Focuses 集中 light onto the retina
• Elastic 有弹性, transparent, convex lens 凸镜
Ciliary body 睫状体 • Changes the focal length 焦距 of lens by changing its
• Strong muscles thickness when looking at objects
Suspensory 悬吊的 ligaments 韧带
• Strong structure
• Made up of fibres 纤维
• Hold 握住 the lens in its position
• Support 支撑 the lens

Vitreous humour 玻璃状液

• Maintains the shape of the eyeball
• Occupies 占有 the space behind 后面 the lens
• Refracts 折射 light onto the retina
• A jelly-like substance 胶状物
• Protects the eye by absorbing vibrations

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Aqueous humour 水状液
• Maintains the shape of the eyeball
• A watery 水一般的 fluid that occupies the space
• Refracts light onto the retina
between the cornea and the lens
• Detects 觉察 the stimulus of light (yellow spot)
Retina 视网膜
• A layer of cells that are sensitive to light(contains • Changes it into impulses 脉冲
photoreceptors 光感受器) • Detects the image 影像 of objects 物体 formed and
changes them into nerve impulses
(a) Yellow spot 黄斑 (most sensitive to light)
• The part that is not sensitive to light (blind spot) because
(b) Blind spot 盲点 (where optic nerve leaves the
there are no photoreceptor)
eye)
• Image of object formed here will not be detected
Optic nerves 视神经
• Send impulses from the retina to the brain
• The connecting nerves from the retina to the brain
The retina has two types of photoreceptors, rods and cones.
(a) The rod cell 视杆细胞 is sensitive towards different intensity of light including dim light. This cell is not
sensitive to colours and give black and white images.
(b) The cone cell 圆锥细胞 is sensitive towards colours in a bright environment. Corn cells function in bright
light. There are three types of cone cells that are sensitive to red, green and blue lights
(The retina is made up of about 137 million of microscopic 细微的 light-sensitive 光敏的 cells.)

Mechanism of Sight 视线机制

Formation of Image 图像 on the Retina
1. The lens in the human eye is a convex lens.凸镜
2. Light from an object 物体 that enters the eye is refracted 反射 and then focused 集中 onto the retina.
3. The human eye is able to see near as well as far objects. The relaxation 放松 and contraction 收缩 of the
ciliary body help to change the thickness 厚度 of the lens, hence 因此, focusing the image on the retina.
4. This process is known as 叫做 accomodation 适应.
Near object
Accomodation Far object
近距物体
Ciliary body Contracts Relaxes
Action of the suspensory ligaments Relax Contract
Thickness of lens Becomes thick Becomes thin
The summary of accomodation
5. The sight mechanism:

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 The Structure and Function of the Ear
1. Sound 声音 is a stimulus that can be detected by the ear as a sense of hearing.
2. The human ear has three sections: (a) Outer ear 外耳 (b) Middle ear 中耳 (c) Inner ear 内耳

Part 部分 Structure 结构 Function 功能

Outer ear Pinna • Funnel-shaped 漏斗状 • Collects 收集 and directs 引导 sound waves
外耳 Ear lobe • Made up of cartilage 软骨组成 声波 into the ear canal 耳道
• A narrow tube 小直径管
Ear canal 耳道 • Transmits 传送 sound waves to the eardrum
• Links 连接 the pinna to the eardrum 耳膜
• A thin stretched 拉紧 membrane 膜 • Vibrates 振 动 (same frequency 频 率 as
Middle ear
• Separates 隔离 the outer ear from the sound waves) and transmits sound waves to
Eardrum 耳膜
middle ear the ossicles 小骨
• Consists of three small bones:
- Hammer: Attached to the eardrum
• Amplify 放大 the vibrations
Ossicles - Anvil 砧骨: Joins the hammer bone to the
• Transmit the vibrations from eardrum to the
小骨 stirrup bone 镫骨
oval window
- Stirrup: Joined to the oval window 卵圆
窗
Eustachian tube 耳咽 • A narrow 狭窄 tube • Balances 平衡 the air pressure 气压 on both
管 • Connects the middle ear to the throat 咽喉 sides of the eardrum
Oval window • An oval-shaped 椭圆形的 and thin • Transmits vibrations from the ossicles to the

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 membrane
卵圆窗
• Located 位于 between the middle and the cochlea 耳蜗
inner ear
• A spiral-shaped 螺旋状 tube
Inner ear • Filled 充满 with liquid • Detects and changes sound vibrations into
Cochlea 耳蜗 • Has receptors that are sensitive towards impulses
vibrations
• Consists of three looped 成圈的 canals
that are positioned at right angles 直角 to
Semicircular 半环状 • Detect position 位置 and movement of head
each other
的 canals 道 • Balance the body
• Small membranes that have fluid 液体
and receptors
Auditory nerve • Nerve fibres 神经线 connecting the • Transmits impulses from the brain to be
听神经 sensory cells to the brain interpreted 诠释

The hearing mechanism:

6. The pinna collects the sound waves and sends them to the ear canal, then to the eardrum.
7. The ossicles amplify 增强 the vibrations 震动. Then, the vibrations are sent to the cochlea via 经过 the oval
window.
8. When the oval window vibrates, the endolymph 内淋巴 in the cochlea vibrates too. This vibration stimulates
the nerve cells. This stimulation changes the vibrations into impulses.
9. The auditory nerve 听觉神经 transmits the impulses from the cochlea to the brain. The brain interprets the
impulses as sound.

The Structure 结构 and Function of the Nose

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1. The nose is the sensory organ of smell
2. The structure of the human nose is shown in the
diagram.
3. The nasal cavity 鼻腔 has a pair of external 外部的
openings which are called the nostrils 鼻孔.
4. Hair 毛发 in the nostrils help to filter 过滤 dust 灰
尘 from inhaled 吸入的 air.
5. The nasal cavity is lined with epithelium 上 皮
tissue.

The Detection of Smell

1. The sensory cells 感 觉 细 胞 are found on the

surface of the epithelium tissue.
2. Mucus 粘液 which is secreted 分泌 by the glands 腺
keeps the surface 表面 of the nasal cavity moist 潮湿.
3. The processes 过 程 involved in 涉 及 the smell
mechanism 机械作用:

4. Chemical substances that carry 携带 the smell are dissolved in 溶解在 the mucus which then stimulate the
sensory cells.
5. This stimulation generates 产生 nerve impulses. Impulses 脉冲 are information signals 信号 that travel 传
送 extremely fast 极度快 along the nerves.
6. The impulses are transmitted 输送 to the brain.
7. The brain interprets 解释 the impulses as a certain type of smell.
8. Factors 因素 influencing 影响 the sensitivity of the nose towards stimuli:
(a) The presence of mucus in the nasal cavity.
(b) The intensity 强度 of the chemical substances in the air.

HOT TIPS
When a person is having a cold 伤 风 , too much mucus will blocks the sensory cells. Chemical substances
cannot stimulate the sensory cells. So, the smell cannot be detected.

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The Structure 结构 and Function of the Tongue

1. The tongue is a muscular 肌肉的 sensory organ that

is used to detect flavoured 味道 chemicals.
2. The tongue is able to detect sweet, salty 咸 的 ,
bitter 苦的 and sour 酸的 tastes 味道.
3. The distribution 分布 of areas 区域 of taste of the
tongue:
(a) The tip or front part 舌尖 - sweet
(b) The back part 后面 - bitter
(c) The sides 旁边 - salty and sour

4. The taste buds 味蕾:

(a) contain taste receptors that are able to detect the taste of food
(b) sensitive towards one specific type of taste

HOT TIPS
• As the astronouts 太空人 travel around the Earth, excess 过量的 blood flows 流去 to the head because of
weak gravitational force 地心吸力.
• The excess blood causes conges (like a cold), which diminished 减少 the sense of taste.
• This is the reasons, why the food for astronouts is more spicy 辛辣的.
5. The processes involved in the taste mechanism:

The Structure 结构 and Function of the Skin

1. A stimulus of touch generates 尝试 the sense of

touch.
2. A stimulus of touch is detected 觉察 by the skin.
3. The cross section 横切面 of the human skin is
shown in the diagram.

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4. The skin is divided into 分成 two main 主要 layers 层:
(a) Epidermis 表皮 (outermost layer 最外层)
(i) The epidermis is lined 排 by a layer of dead 死 and tough 坚韧 cells on its surface 表面.
(ii) The dead cells contain keratin 角质, a type of fibrous 纤维状 protein that drops 脱落 easily.
(iii) The lower part of the epidermis is called the Malpighian layer 表皮生发层. The cells in this layer divide
细胞分裂 actively 活跃 to produce 产生 new cells.
(b) Dermis 真皮(inner layer 内层)
(i) consists of 组成 a layer of thick connective 连接的 tissues 组织
(ii) is rich 富有 with blood capillaries 微细血管 to transport 运输 oxygen and nutrient 营养品 s to the body
cells
(iii) has receptors 接收器 (nerve endings 神经末端) to detect heat, cold and touch
(iv) has other structures such as muscle fibres 肌肉纤维 and sweat glands 汗腺

The Sensitivity 敏感性 of the Skin

1. Different parts of the body have different degrees 程度 of sensitivity which depend on 有赖于 the:
(a) thickness 厚度 of the epidermis (b) number 数目 of receptors
2. The fingertips 指尖, neck and cheeks 脸颊 are parts of the human body that have thin epidermis and a large
number of receptors.
3. The soles of the feet 脚底 and elbows 肘 have thick epidermis and smaller number of receptors. Therefore 所
以, they are less sensitive to stimuli.
4. The sensitivity of the skin can be applied 运用 in our daily lives 日常生活:
(a) The blind 盲人 use their sense of touch (through the fingertips) to identify 识别 and to read Braille 盲人点
字法'.
(b) A doctor gives an injection 注射 on the parts of the body with thicker epidermis, for example the arms 手
臂 or buttock 臀部 which are less sensitive to pain.
Relationship between the Sensory Organs and Sensitivity towards a Combination of Stimuli
Relationship between the sense of • The nasal cavity and mouth cavity are interconnected.相互关联
taste and smell (a) Chemical substances in food stimulate the taste receptors and smell
receptors at the same time.
(b) This means that the taste and smell of food is detected simultaneously
同时.
(c) When a person has a cold or the flu, excessive mucus will prevent the
chemical substances from stimulating the smell receptors. Since the
person's sense of smell is now impaired 受损, their sense of taste is
diminished 减少 too.
Relationship between the sense of • The sensitivity of the touch receptor towards touch stimuli is aided by
touch and sense of sight the sense of sight.
• However, for blind people, they depend on touch receptors, for example
for reading Braille symbols 盲文符号.
Relationship between the sense of • Hearing using both ears is known as stereophonic 立体声 hearing.
hearing and sense of sight • Stereophonic hearing helps us to determine the direction 方向 and
location 地点 of sound accurately 准确.
•Blind people depend on stereophonic hearing to determine the direction
and location of sound accurately.
Relationship between the sense of • The semi-circular canal in the ear is not involved in hearing but helps
hearing with body balance the body to maintain its balance.平衡

Limitations 限制 and Defects 缺陷 of Our Senses

Limitations of sight 视力限制

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1 The sense of sight has limits.
2 We cannot see
(a) Very tiny 细小 objects like bacteria, viruses 病毒 and atoms 原子
(b) Very distant 遥远 objects like the stars 恒星 and planets 行星
(c) Through opaque 不透明 objects 物体
(d) Behind a comer 角 or a wall
3 Other than that, blind spots and optical illusions are also limitations of sight.
Type of sight limitation Source
Blind spot 盲点 • Blind spot has no photoreceptors
• Therefore, image formed on spot cannot be detected

Optical illusion 视错觉 • The brain cannot make a precise 准确 interpretation

解读 based on the information sent by the receptors to
the eyes.
• This means that what we perceive 感知 is different
from the actual situation.真实情况

The two thick lines look unparalleled 不平行 even

though they are parallel.

1. Blind spot can only be detected in one eye at a time.

2. For example:

• Hold the book with your right hand.

• Close your left eye. Look at the cross with your right eye and slowly move the book towards your eye.
• At a certain distance from the eye, the cross would disappear from your view.
(i) Close your right eye.
(ii) Look at the black spot on the above diagram with your left eye.
(iii) Move the book slowly towards your face while still focusing on the spot.
(iv) At First you can see both signs but at a certain distance, the cross sign disappears from sight.
(v) This is because the image of the cross sign falls on the blind spot

Optical Illusion 错觉

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1. Optical illusion occurs when the objects that we see differ 不同 from the actual 实际 ones. This is due to the
failure 失败 of the brain to interpret impulses properly 正确地 when it is disturbed 被干扰 by the surrounding
周围 objects or the conditions of the objects.
2. The following table shows examples of optical illusion.

Optical illusion Explanation

Horizontal lines AB and CD are actually parallel.

Lines AB and CD appear unparallel 不平行.

Horizontal lines AB and CD are of the same length.

Line AB appear longer than line CD.

The length of lines EF and GH are equal.

Line EF appear 显然 longer than line GH.

Defects of Sight and Ways to Correct Them

1 When an image is focused exactly on the retina, the person has normal eyesight.

2 Defects of sight 视力缺陷 are

(a) Short-sightedness 近视 (d) Colour-blindness 色盲
(b) Long-sightedness 远视 (e) Presbyopia 老花眼
(c) Astigmatism 散光

Table 1.1 Comparison between short-sightedness and long-sightedness

Aspect Short-sighted (myopia) Long-sighted (hypermetropia)
Sight condition Cannot see distant objects clearly Cannot see near objects clearly

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Causes • The eye lens is too thick • The eye lens is too thin
• Eyeball is too long • Eyeball is too short
Focus The light from distant objects is focused The light from distant objects is focused
in front of 前面 the retina behind 后面 the retina

Way to overcome 克服 • Wear glasses with concave lens 凹透镜 • Wear glasses with convex lens 凸透镜
方法 • The lens diverges 发散 the light before • The lens converges the light before the
the light enters the eye so that the image light enters the eye so that the image is
is formed on the retina formed on the retina.

Defects of sight Causes Sight Correction

Astigmatism • Irregular 不规则 cornea or lens Blur 模糊 and not Wearing glasses with
or both clear images cylindrical lenses or laser
• Lights from object are separated Operation 激光手术
and focused at different spots in
the eyes. Therefore, the eye
cannot focus on the object to get a
sharp 清晰的 image.

Colour- Less cone cells (the receptor cells Cannot Cannot be corrected 纠正
blindness on the retina which identify 确认 differentiate 分辨 because it is a genetic disease.
colours) between red and
green colour
Presbyopia • The ciliary muscles lose the Both distant and Wearing glasses with bifocal
ability to contract and relax near objects Lens 双焦镜片 to see near and
• Normally occurs at old age cannot be seen distant objects clearly
clearly

Technology to Overcome the Limitations of Sensory Organ

Devices to overcome sight limitations

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 Limits of sight/vision
Cannot see discrete/tiny objects
Cannot see distant objects
Cannot see through opaque objects
Cannot see objects behind a wall
Devices to improve vision 改善视力
Magnifying glass 放大镜, microscope 显微镜
Binoculars 望远镜, telescope 望远镜
X-ray machine, ultrasound 超声波
Periscope 潜望镜

Device Function
Microscope • Device used to magnify tiny 细小 objects like
bacteria and cells
• Uses two convex lenses, the objective lens 物镜 and
eyepiece 目镜

Magnifying glass • Device used to magnify small objects

• Made up of one convex lens
• Has limited magnifying power
Telescope • Device used for observing distant objects like stars
and planets
• Made up of two convex lenses

Binoculars •Device for seeing distant objects

•Provides a stereoscopic vision 立体视觉 of distant
objects
•A binoculars is actually a pair of telescopes

Ultrasound device • Device which makes use of high frequency sound

waves to scan the image of various organs in the body.
• Normally used for scanning 扫描 the foetus 胎儿 in
the uterus 子宫.

X-ray machine Device that uses high energy rays which can penetrate
穿透 our body until the tissues to produce an image on
a film to be investigated by radiologists 放射科医生.

Defects of hearing

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 Total hearing loss can be caused by the fusion 结合 of the
ossicles in the middle ear due to infections 感染 or diseases.
Deafness 耳聋
refers to
temporary 短暂 Temporary deafness can be caused by the accumulation 堆积 of
deafness or ear wax 耳垢 in the ear canal.
permanent 永久
deafness
Can be caused by infections, accidents, aging process 老化过
程, injury of the eardrum or continuous exposure 暴露 to loud
noises.巨响

1. Deafness which involves the outer ear and the middle ear:
(a) Caused by the build-up of earwax, injury to the eardrum or ear infection.
(b) This hearing defect is usually temporary and can be corrected through surgery 手术 or by using hearing
aids 助听器.
2. Deafness which involves the inner ear:
(a) Caused by aging process, bacterial infection, exposure to very loud noises or tumour 瘤 in the inner ear.
(b) In some cases, receptors in the cochlea are permanently damaged and cannot be treated 治疗 at all.

Limitations of Hearing 听力限制

1. Human beings and animals have hearing limitations that are related to the range 范围 of frequencies 频率.
2. A normal person can hear sounds between 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz 赫兹. Animals such as dogs, cats, dolphins 海
豚 and bat 蝙蝠 s can hear sounds with a frequency of more than 20 000 Hz.
3. Older people can hear sound in smaller range of frequencies because the eardrum becomes less elastic 弹性
overtime 历时过久, while children have higher range of hearing frequencies than adults because their eadrum
are more elastic
4. Different animals have different range of hearing frequencies.
QUICK FACTS
• Infrasonic 次声的 has the range of hearing frequencies below 20 Hz.
• Ultrasonic 超声的 has the range of hearing frequencies of more than 20 000 Hz.
• Dogs can hear sound from a Galton whistle 音笛, which cannot be heard by human beings.

Ways to Correct Hearing Defects

1 Fused or damaged ossicles and punctured eardrums can be cured and replaced through surgery.
2 Hearing aids can amplify sound and help people with hearing defects to hear clearly.

Devices to Overcome Hearing Limitations

Limitation of hearing Device to overcome

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 Unable to hear very soft sounds Stethoscope
like the heartbeat 听诊器

Unable to hear distant sound Microphone, loudspeaker

喇叭

Unable to hear normal sound Hearing aids

Ways to overcome hearing limitations

1 (a) A stethoscope is used by doctors to amplify 加强 the sounds of internal organs (like the heart, lungs and
intestines) so as to more clearly
(b) Microphone and loudspeaker are used to amplify our voices so it can be heard from far away

Effects of Unhealthy Lifestyles on the Sensitivity of Organs

1 Unhealthy lifestyles or high-risk 高风险 careers can reduce the sensitivity of our sensory organs.
2 Example the use of drills 钻头 by contractors 承包商 and listening to loud music using ear phones for long
durations 长期 can affect the sense of hearing.
3 Exposure to high-energy blue light emitted by digital devices like smartphones for a long period of time,
especially in the dark, can damage We should be graceful for our sensory organs and should take good care of
them.

Stimuli and Responses in Plants

1.9.1 Detection of Plant Stimuli
1. Plants respond to light, water, gravity 地心引力 and touch stimuli.
2. Some plants response to changes in temperature and chemical sunstances.
3. Different parts of a plant is sensitive towards specific stimulus or stimuli.

Stimuli The part that respond

Light Shoots 枝干
Pull of gravity Roots 根
Water Roots
Touch Leaves and tendrils 卷须

4. There are two types of responses in plants:

(a) Tropism 向性
(b) Nastic movement

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5. The response of a plant part in a certain direction towards a specific stimulus is known as tropism 向性.
6. Tropic movement can be divided into:
(a) Phototropism 向光性 (c) Hydrotropism 向水性
(b) Geotropism 向地性 (d) Thigmotropism 触性
7. Positive tropism 正向性 is the response of plants in the direction of the stimulus while negative tropism
负向性 is the situation 情况 when a part of a plant moves away 离开 from the stimulus.
8. All tropic response are permanent 永久性 and reversible.可逆转

Responses in Plants
Phototropism 向光性

1. The response of a plant towards light is called

phototropism.
2. The shoot of a plant shows positive phototropism
because it grows towards light.
3. Positive phototropism is important to ensure 确 保
that plants can obtain 获 取 maximum 最 大 量 的
sunlight for the process of photosynthesis.

4. The root of a plant shows negative phototropism

because it moves away from the light source.

Experiment 2 To investigate and identify the parts of plants that are sensitive to light
Problem statement: Which part of a plant will respond to light?
Hypothesis: Shoots of a plant grow towards light.
Variables:
1. Controlled: Moist sawdust, growth stage of the plants
2. Manipulated: Presence of light
3. Responding: Direction in which the shoots of the plants bend

Procedure
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
2. Place set A near a window with high intensity of
sunlight.
3. Place set B in a dark area, for example, in a
cupboard.
4. After three days, observe and compare the plants
in both beakers.

Observation and inference

1. The shoots of plants in A are seen to bend towards the hole through which light can enter. The shoots show
positive phototropism.
2. The shoots of plants in B do not bend because there is no source of light in the cupboard.
Conclusion
The shoots of the plants show positive phototropism because they bend towards light. The hypothesis is

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accepted.

Geotropism 向地性

1. The response of a plant towards gravity is called

geotropism.
2. Roots (radicles 幼根) show positive geotropism by
growing downwards into the earth.
3. Geotropism is important for plants. t enables them
to absorb enough water and minerals from the soil as
well as to give support to the plants.
4. Shoots of a plant show negative geotropism by
growing upright 直立 and away from the earth.

Hydrotropism 向水性

1. The response of a plant towards water is known as

hydrotropism.
2. Roots show positive hydrotropism by growing towards
water.
3. The shoot of a plant grows away from the water, i.e. it shows
negative hydrotropism.
4. Hydrotropism is important for the survival 生存 of plants as
it enables the absorption of water needed for photosynthesis and
minerals needed for growth.

Thigmotropism 向触性

1. The response of a plant towards touch or contact 接触 is known as

thigmotropism
2. Some plants show positive thigmotropism by coiling 卷绕 their
tendrils or soft stems 茎 around a support 支撑物.
3. Some plants such as cucumber 黄瓜 and bitter gourd 苦瓜 use their
tendrils to curl 卷曲 around an object for support. This enables them
to grow higher in order to absorb maximum sunlight.

EXPERIMENT 3 TO investigate and identify the parts of plants that are sensitive to water
Problem statement: Which part of a plant will respond to water?
Hypothesis: Roots grow towards water.
Variables
1. Controlled: Germinating stage of seedlings, arrangement of seedlings, gravity, absence of light
2. Manipulated: Presence of water
3. Responding: Direction of the roots of seedlings
Procedure

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 1. Prepare two sets of apparatus as shown in the
diagram.
2. Place anhydrous calcium chloride into beaker A.
3. Pour water into beaker B.
4. Place both sets in a dark area for two to three days.

Observation and inference

1. In beaker A, the roots of seedlings bend upwards
towards the moist cotton because the roots show
positive hydrotropism.
2. The roots of seedlings grow down -wards towards
the water in beaker B.

Explanation:The response of the plants' roots towards water is greater than their response towards gravity.
Conclusion:Positive hydrotropism is shown by the roots. That is why the roots in set A bend upwards towards
the source of water irrespective of the direction of gravity. The hypothesis is accepted.

Nastic Movements
1. Nastic movements are the responses of parts of plants towards stimuli
2. In nastic movements, the direction of the response does not depend on the direction of the stimulus. In other
words, the response is not necessarily directed towards or away from stimuli.
3. Nastic movements are quick and reversible.
4. Examples of nastic movements:
(a) The leaves of mimosa plant 含羞草 close immediately when touched. After a while, the leaves will open
again.

(b) Carnivorous 食肉 plants like the Venus Flytrap 捕蝇草 have special hairs on their leaves that are
sensitive to touch. If a fly lands or crawls 爬 on these hairs, the two lobes of the leaves shut 关 and trap
the fly inside.

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 The Importance of Responses in Animals
Stereoscopic 立体 and Monocular Vision 单眼视觉

Stereoscopic Vision 立体观察 Monocular Vision 单眼视觉

Both eyes are located at the front of the head
Both eyes are used to look at objects
Overlapping 重叠 of the fields of vision 视野 at the
centre
The field of vision is smaller compared to monocular
vision
Forms three-dimensional images
Able to estimate 估计 location 位置 and distance of an
object accurately
• Humans and predators have stereoscopic vision
• Predators like eagles, owls, lions and tigers can
determine the location and distance of their prey
accurately
One eye is located on each side of the head
Only one eye is used for looking at an object
No overlapping of the fields of vision or only very
little overlapping occurs
Wider field of vision. Sometimes monocular vision
can cover a field of 360°
Does not form three dimension images
Unable to judge the distance and location of objects
accurately
• Prey have monocular vision
•Preys use this type of vision to detect 察觉 predators
from all directions 方向. This enables them to escape
逃离 from the predators.
Some examples are deers, goats, chickens, fish, rats 老
鼠 and rabbits.

Stereophonic Hearing and Hearing Frequencies Range 频率范围 of Animals

1 Stereophonic hearing 立体声听觉
(a) Refers to hearing using both ears
(b) Helps us to determine the direction and location of sounds accurately
(c) Helps prey run away from predators
2 Humans can only detect sounds in the frequency range of 20 Hz (hertz) to 20 000 Hz.
3 Table 1.3 shows the hearing frequencies for different animals

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 Animal Hearing frequency (Hz)
Dog 67 - 45 000
Rat 老鼠 200 - 80 000
Goldfish 20 - 3 000
Bat 蝙蝠 2 000 - 111 000
Dolphin 40- 100 000
Cat 45 - 64 000
Elephant 16 – 12 000

Sensory Organs Ensure the Continuation 延续 of Animals on Earth

Sensory organ Examples Response

Quill 羽茎 Porcupine 豪猪 • Have needle-liked spikes 尖峰 called quills which are
sharp and hard on the body.
• Will respond by expelling 驱逐 its quills towards the
enemies when attacked.

Electric field 电场 Electric eel 电鳗 • A species of fish which has organs to produce electric
charges.
• The electric charges produce a field of electricity around
the fish.
• The electric field helps the fish to determine any
disturbances 干扰 from objects or organisms.
Pheromones Doodlebug beetle 甲虫 Male beetles use their antennae 触 角 to detect the
pheromones produced by the female beetle.
信息素
Helps the beetle to find their mates 伴侣 and to reproduce
繁殖.

Jacobson’s organ Snakes Jacobson’s organ is located at the ceiling of the mouth of
reptiles.
Jacobson’s organ helps snakes to detect smell accumulated
at the tongue thus enabling them to detect enemies or prey.

Eyes Green jumper spider This spider has more than one pair of eyes which are highly
complex, and has vary good eyesight.
The eyes have a 360° field of vision to detect the movement
of objects.

Senses on Grasshopper Grasshoppers have eardrums on the abdomen which can

the body detect sounds and movement of air.

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Lateral lines 侧线 Fish A lateral line is a system of sensory organs located along
the body of the fish.
The lateral line detects changes in the water pressure,
detects prey and predators and helps in the movement of the
fish.

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