Chapter 9

9.1 the Earth

Earth system consists of four main components which are interconnected:

(a) atmosphere (air zone)
(b) biosphere (life zone: humans, animals, plants and microorganisms)
(c) hydrosphere. (water zone: rivers, lakes, seas, water trapped as ice, water vapour in atmosphere)
(d) geosphere. (rock and soil zone)

9.1.1 Atmospheric Stratification

Earth’s atmosphere consists of 5 layers, each with its respective roles.

Layers Roles
Troposphere The layer where living organism breathes, wind blows and where clouds, rain
(0-13 km) and snow form.
Stratosphere Suitable and stable for aircraft and flights.
(13-50km) Ozone layer contains ozone gas which absorbs harmful ultraviolet rays from
sunlight.
Ozone layer deplets when chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) released from
pesticides, refrigerators and air-conditioners break down ozone molecules in
the ozone layer.
Mesosphere Burning and destruction of meteorites.
(50-80km)
Thermosphere Also known as ionosphere because it contains ions that can reflect radio
(80-480km) waves.
Aurora ( a stream of colourful lights resulting from reactions of charged
particles with Earth’s magnetic field and atmospheric gases occurs here.
Exosphere Contains light gases such as helium and hydrogen.
(480km and above) Air becomes thinner towards space.
Communication satellites orbiting Earth in this layer allow phone calls and
television broadcasts.

Relationship between air pressure and altitude

The higher the altitude, the lower

the air pressure. The temperature
also becomes lower when altitude
increases.
9.1.2 Ocean Stratification
The ocean divided into different zones, from a zone where light can penetrate to a zone where light
cannot penetrate(dark zone).

Zones Descriptions
Surface zone Water is very shallow and light can penetrate.
Suitable as a habitat for plants.
Midnight zone Has little or no light.
Difficult for plants to live at this depth.
Habitat for large marine animals, such as giant squids and various species of
whales.
Dark zone Very deep and no light can reach it.
Most animals in this zone have shimmering bodies or able to glow in the dark.

Distribution of Water on Earth

Water Cycle
- A continuous process.
- Hence, the total amount of water contained in Earth, on Earth’s surface and in Earth’s atmosphere
is always constant.

Earth’s Layers
Earth is the Only Home for Living Organisms

Unique characteristics of Earth:

(a) Earth’s temperature, which is not too hot or too cold.
This is due to Earth’s position, which is not too near or too far from the Sun.
(b) Presence of water and oxygen on Earth.

9.2 Composition of the Earth

Earth’s crust is formed from various types of rocks, which differ in colour, structure, texture and
the way it is formed.

Generally, the rocks can be categorized into three groups, namely igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks
and metamorphic rocks.

Types and Characteristics of Rocks

Igneous rock Sedimentary rock Metamorphic rock

Formed from the process of
cooling and freezing og magma
or lava that flows out of
mantle.
Contains various minerals.
Formed by compression of
deposited materials carried by
the rivers, glaciers and wind.
Consists of many layers which
are sometimes hollow and
contain fossils.
Formed when igneous rocks or
sedimentary rocks are exposed
to very high pressure and
temperature.
Usually harder than the original
rocks that formed them.

The rock cycle

9.3 Main Processes of the Earth
Earth’s surface is formed by teo processes, namely the exogenic process and endogenic process.

Exogenic Process
- process that occurs on Earth’s surface.
- Examples:

Exogenic Process Explainations

Weathering A process of rock fragmentation and
decomposition or decay dut to changes in
temperature, rainwater, frosting and
microorganism.

Erosion A process of eroding of the Earth’s surface by

moving agents such as water, wind and waves.
Mass and Land depletion They involve soil movement from the top of a
slope to below as a result of gravitational force.
Transport and sedimentation Weathered or corroded materials are moved by
agents such as running water, wind, waves and
glaciers. The materials will be sedimentaed when
the velocity of the agents decreases.

Endogenic Process
- a process that is caused by forces from within the Earth.
- forms and changes the Earths’s surface.
- Examples:

Mantle convection process
Earth’s crust movement
(Plate Tectonics)
Magma activity
Hight temperature in the mantle and the core of Earth produces
convection currents in the atmosphere layer. These currents are able
to move Earth’s crust.
According to the theory of Plate Tectonics, the Earth’s crust is divided
into several pieces of plates. These plates constantly move resulting
in collision and divergence which produce various landforms on Earth
and continental drifts.
Volcano is a vent on the Earth’s crust that allows molten and hot
magma to flow out through it in a strong eruption. The erupted
materials accumulate around the slope of the vent and form volcanic
cones.

9.4 Geohazard phenomena

Examples of geohazard
(a) Tsunami
(b) Earthquake
(c) Landslide
(d) Volcanism
(e) Global warming
(f) Acid Rain
(g) Quicksand
(h) Sinkhole

Impact of Geohazard to humans

(a) Loss of life
(b) Diseases
(c) Starvation
(d) Damage of properties

Devices invented to predict occurences of geohazards:

(a) Landslide
(b) Tsunami

9.5 Age of Earth

Geological Timescale
Fossil
Fossils are Earth’s materials such as plants, animals and insects which have been submerged and
buried for a very long period of time.
Impotances:
- Fossil records can provide information about how animals and plants species on Earth have
evolved over millions of years.
- It can also provide information about species that have gone instinct.

Earth’s Resources and Applied Geology

(a) Surface water: Found on the surface of the Earth. E.g. seas, ponds and rivers.
(b) Underground water: Fills up the empty spaces between soil particles and layers of permeable
rocks.

Economic Minerals
(a) Metallic minerals: Iron ore, tin and gold
(b) Non-metallic minerals: Coal and petroleum
(c) Rare Earth materials:
- Consist of one or more than one of 17 rare Earth elements found inside Earth’s crust.
- They exist together with other rare earth elements and hence difficult to separate.
- This unique propertie makes them very important in modern technology.
- They are used in computers, DVDs, communication devices, television and others.

Hydrothermal Process
Formation of hotspring and generation of electricity through the hydrothermal process

Hot steam is used to drive a turbine

and generate electricity

(Metamorphic rocks)

(Metamorphic rocks)
The Negative Effects of Unplanned Human Activities

Deforestation Open burning

Erosion,
Agriculture Industrialisation
Flash flood,
Extinction of flora
and fauna,
Water, air thermal
and sound pollution,
gloabal warming