Lesson 1: EXOGENIC PROCESSES

 Exogenic process includes geological phenomena and processes that originate

externally to the Earth’ssurface.
 Generally related tothe:
 atmosphere,
 hydrosphere and
 biosphere, and
 therefore to processes of:
o weathering,
o erosion,
o transportation,
o deposition,
o denudationetc.
 Exogenic factors and processes could also have sources outside Earth, for instance
under the influence of the Sun, Moon, etc.
The above mentioned processes constitute essential landform-shaping factors. Their
rate and activity very often depends on local conditions, and can also be accelerated by human
actions.
The combined functions of exogenic and endogenic factors influences the present
complicated picture of the Earth’s surface.

Mountains, valleys and plains seem to change little, if at all, when left to nature, but they do
change continuously. The features of the Earth’s surface temporary forms in a long sequence
of change that began when the planet originated billions of years ago, and is continuing today.
The process that shaped the crust in the past are shaping it now. By understanding them, it is
possible to imagine, in a general way, how the land looked in the distant past and how it may
look in the distantfuture.
Landforms are limitless in variety. Some have been shaped primarily by:
 streams ofwater,
 glacial ice,
 waves and currents and
 movements of the Earth‘s crustor
 volcanic eruptions.
These are landscapes typical of deserts and others characteristic of humid regions. The
arctic makes its special mark on rock scenery, as do the tropics. Because geological conditions
from locality to locality are never quite the same, every landscape is unique. Rock at or near
the surface of the continents breaks up and decomposes because of exposure. The processes
involved are calledweathering.
Weathering
Weathering is the decomposition and disintegration of rocks and minerals at the Earth’s
surface.

Erosion
Erosion is the removal of weathered rocks and minerals by moving water, wind, glaciers
and gravity.

The four processes – weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition work together
to modify the earth’s surface.

The Work of Weathering

Weathering produces some landforms directly, but is more effective in preparing rocks
for removal by mass wasting and erosion. Weathering influences relief in every landscape.

Freezing and thawing

 Water expands when itfreezes.
 If water accumulates in a crack and then freezes, its expansion pushes the rock apart
and the process is called frostwedging.
 In a temperate climate, water may freeze at night and thaw during theday.
 Ice cements the rock temporarily, but when it melts, the rock fragments may tumble
from a steep cliff.
 Largepilesoflooseangularrocks,calledtalusslopes,liebeneathmanycliffs.
These rocks fell from the cliffs mainly as a result of frost wedging.
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 Temperature changes
Sudden cooling of a rock surface may cause it to contract so rapidly over warmer rock
beneath that it flakes or grains break off. This happens mostly in deserts, where intense
daytime heat is followed by rapid cooling after.

Lesson 1. 2 : Endogenic Process

 Endogenicprocessesinclude tectonic movements ofthe crust, magmatism ,

metamorphism, and seismicactivity.
 Endogenic processes have been responsible for shaping the earth’srelief and the
formation of many of the important mineral resources.
 The principal energy sources for endogenic processesare:
1. heat
2 the redistribution of material in the earth’s interior according todensity
- The earth’s deep heat originates chiefly fromradiation.
- The continuous generation of heat in the earth’s interior results in theflow of
heat toward thesurface.

 With the proper combination of materials, temperature, and pressure, chambers and
layers of partial melting may occur a t certain depths within theearth.
Study Question:
What is the difference between exogenic and endogenic process ?

 The asthenosphere, the primary source of magma formation, is such a layer in the upper
mantle. Convection currents may arise in the asthenosphere and they are hypothesized
to belithosphere.

 In the zones of the volcanic belts of the island arcs and continental margins, the principal
magma chambers are associated with super deep dip faults, slanting beneath the
continents from the ocean side to depths of about 700km.

 Under the influence of the heat flow or under the direct influence of the heat carried by
rising abyssal magma , magma chambers form in the crust itself . Reaching the near
surface parts, the magma is intruded into them in the form of variously shaped intrusive
bodies or is extruded onto the surface , formingvolcanoes.

 Gravitational differentiation has led to the stratification of the earth into geospheres of
varyingdensity.

 Is also manifested in the form of tectonic movements , which, in turn, lead to the tectonic
deformation of crustal and upper mantlerocks.

 The accumulation and subsequent discharge of tectonic stresses along active faults
causes earthquakes.

It is hypothesized that a combination of these processes leads to the temporal

unevenness of the release of heat and light matter toward the surface , which , in turn ,
can be explained by the occurrence of tectonic magmatic cycles in the history of the
earth’s crust. The spatial irregularities of the same abyssal processes may explain
division of the crust into more or less geologically active regions, for example, into
geosynclines andplatforms.

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 CHAPTER 3: NATURAL HAZARDS, MITIGATON, AND
ADAPTATION

Objectives:
1. To identify different geological processes and hydrometeorologicalphenomena
2. To describe the various hazards that may happen in the events of earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, landslides and hydrometeorological phenomena
3. To describe how coastal processes result in coastal erosion, submersionand
saltwaterintrusion

Throughout the history of this planet, natural hazards have had great impact. From the
prehistoric to biblical hazards to the tragic events of recent times, humanity has been afflicted
by natural disasters.

Lesson3.1: GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES ANDHAZARDS

Geological processes are dynamics at work in the earth’s landforms and surfaces. It
involved landslide, volcanic eruption, and earthquake that are in some points destructive and in
othersconstructive.

EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is caused by a sudden release of strain in the earth's interior. The
sudden release of strain occurs because the strength of the straining material is exceeded by
the strain that has accumulated within that material.

There are two main causes of earthquakes:

1. explosive volcaniceruptions
2. tectonic activity associated with plate margins and faults

Effects of an Earthquake
The destruction caused by an earthquake depends largely on its magnitude and
duration. The destructive effects of an earthquake can be classified into primary and secondary
effects. Primary effects are the immediate damage caused by the quake, such as collapsing
buildings, roads and bridges, which may kill many people.

Myanmar 6.9 magnitude Nepal 7.8 magnitude

earthquake (April 2016) earthquake (April2015)

Secondary Effects are the after-effects of the earthquake, such as fires, tsunami, landslides
and diseases.
 Fire. Earthquakes destroy gas pipes and electric cables, causing fires tospread.
 Landslides. Earthquakes often cause landslides, especially in steep river valleys and
areas of weak rocks.
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  Disease and famine. Fresh water supplies are often cut off causing typhoid and
cholera. Lack of shelter and food causes muchsuffering.
 Soil liquefaction. When soil with high water content, are violently shaken they lose their
mechanical strength and behave like a fluid and so buildings can literallysink.
 Tsunami. Earthquake can cause huge underwater waves called tsunami. Rock slipping
along a fault under the ocean causes it.

On March 11, 2011, a magnitude-9 earthquake shook northeastern Japan, unleashing a savage tsunami

LANDSLIDE
Landslide, also called landslip is the movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope.
They result from the failure of the materials which make up the hill slope and are driven by the
force of gravity.
Landslides can be triggered by natural causes or by human activity. They range from a
single boulder in a rock fall or topple to tens of millions of cubic meters of material in a debris
flow.
Landslides cause property damage, injury and death and adversely affect a variety of
resources.
Human activity, such as agriculture and construction, can increase the risk of a
landslide. Irrigation, deforestation, mining and water leakage are some of the common
activities that weaken the slope.
In January 2012, a landslide hit mining site in Compostela Valley in a remote area of the
southern Philippines. The mountainside of the village collapsed when most residents were
asleep, sweeping away about 50 houses, shanties and other buildings. (Seefig.below)

DavaoCity,Philippines(January5,2012)AlandslideoccurredinPantukan,CompostelaValley.
VOLCANICERUPTION

Volcanic eruption begins when pressure on the magma chamber forces magma up
through the conduit and out of the volcano’s vent. It varies considerably. Eruptions may be
violent, mild or quiet. Magma composition, magma temperature, and the amount of dissolved
gases in the magma are the primary factors that determine whether a volcano erupts violently
or quietly.
Volcanic eruptions can cause serious impacts on living things, the economy as well as
in the environment. It is both beneficial and destructive.

Benefits of Volcanic Eruption

1. Agricultural Benefits. After volcanic eruption, the lava can turn into one of the most fertile
soil. Places near the volcanoes have a fertile soil favorable for the farmers. The biggest
plantation of abaca in the Philippines is in the foot of Mt. Mayon. The Rice Granary of the
Philippines in Central Luzon is located in the surrounding area of Mt. Pinatubo.
2. Economic and Recreational Benefits. Volcanoes can promote tourism. Hot springs in the
surrounding places of volcanoes are one of the favorite recreational destination of
manypeople.
3. Energy Benefits. Volcanoes provide resources for energy extraction, also known as
geothermal resources. With enough supply of water and steady source of heat, steam can be
generated to power turbines that can spin generators to produceelectricity.
4. Industrial Benefits. Volcanoes contain minerals, a good source of chemical and industrial
materials.

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 Harmful Effects of Volcanic Eruption
1. Volcanic ashes pose potential hazards to living things, agriculture andproperties.
2. Volcanic eruption contribute to globalwarming.
3. Massive flow of lahar can destroy properties and lives of manypeople.

ReviewQuestion:
What hazards may happen in the event of earthquake, landslide, and
volcanic eruption?

Lesson 3.2: HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA ANDHAZARDS

Hydrometeorological Hazards
It is a process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydro-logical or oceanographic nature
that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of
livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.
Hydrometeorological hazards are driven by hydrological processes. It is a long accepted
fact that the Pacific is one of the most natural disaster prone regions in the world. Aside
from the threat of geological hazards, the Pacific region is subject to a wide range of
hydrometeorological hazards. These includes: tropical cyclones, severe storms, storm
surges, floods/ flash floods, droughts, fires/ wild fires, and coldwaves.

FLOOD
A flood occurs when water overflows or inundates land that's normally dry. Most
common is when rivers or streams overflow their banks. Floods are among the most frequent
and costly hydrological hazard. Ongoing flooding can intensify to flash flooding in cases where
intense rainfall results in a rapid surge of rising flood waters.

Effects of flooding
Floods can have devastating consequences and can have effects on the econo - my,
environment and people.
 Economic
During floods (especially flash floods), roads, bridges, farms, houses and automobiles
are destroyed. All these come at a heavy cost to people and the government.
 Environment
The environment also suffers when floods happen. Chemicals and other hazardous
substances end up in the water and eventually contaminate the water bodies that
floods end up in. Additionally, flooding causes kills animals, and
others insects are introduced to affected areas, distorting the natural balance of
the ecosystem.
 People andAnimals
Many people and animals have died in flash floods. Many more are injured and others
made homeless. Water supply and electricity are disrupted and people struggle and
suffer as a result. In addition to this, flooding brings a lot of diseases and infections
including military fever, pneumonic plague, leptospirosis and dysentery. Sometimes
insects and snakes make their ways to the area and cause a lot ofhavoc.

Flood Hazard Mapping

Flood Hazard Mapping is a vital component for appropriate land use planning in flood-
prone areas. It creates easily-read, rapidly-accessible charts and maps which facilitate the
identification of areas at risk of flooding and also helps prioritize mitigation and response efforts
.
Flood hazard maps are designed to increase awareness of the likelihood of flooding
among the public, local authorities and other
organizations. They also encourage people living and working in flood-
prone areas to find out more about the local flood risk and to take
appropriate action (Environment Agency,2010).

The Philippine government has made geo-hazard maps, which outline

areas prone to natural disasters. (See fig.)

TROPICAL CYCLONE
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 Tropical cyclones are warm-core low pressure systems associated with a spiral inflow
of mass at the bottom level and spiral outflow at the top level. They always form over oceans
where sea surface temperature, also air temperatures are greater than 26°C. The air
accumulates large amounts of sensible and latent heat as it spirals towards thecenter.
The Philippines is prone to tropical cyclones due to its geographical location.
1. StrongWinds
The strong wind associated to tropical cyclones is hazardous to properties,
people, plants and animals.
2. HeavyRainfall
Strong and heavy rains could cause floods especially in low-lying areas. Flash
floods are also associated to tropical cyclones. Flash floods are sudden occurrences
and cannot be predicted.
3. StormSurge.
A storm surge is a term used for big waves and high tides that occur during
tropical cyclones.
4. Tornado.
It is a violent storm that strike as a powerful rotating mixture of wind and
thunderstorm clouds, extending to the ground from the cloud in a funnel shape.

DROUGHT
Drought is characterized by below-average precipitation in a given region, resulting in
prolonged shortages in its water supply. The strong likelihood of reduced rainfall during an El
Niño event increases the risk of drought in the Philippines.

IMPACTS OF DROUGHT
Drought often results in mass displacements of population. It leads to water and food
shortages and is likely to have a long-term environmental, economic and health impact on the
population.
 Droughts lower the quality of soil resulting to low cropyield.
 Bodies of water dry out and water animals willdie.
 The health and quality of freshwater biomes becomeaffected.
 Hunger andmalnutrition
 Farmers need to spend more money for theirrigation.
 Less or no rains means drier conditions and more bush fire. Farms are destroyed.

Review questions:
1. What are some of the hazards associated to hydrometeorological
phenomena and how can you minimize the damages that theycause?
2. Hazardmapisbeingusednowtomonitornaturalhazard.Howdoesit
help in mitigating the effects of natural hazard?

Lesson3.3: COASTAL PROCESSES AND THEIREFFECTS

Coastal Processes
The shoreline is affected by waves (produced by wind at sea) and tides (produced by
the gravitational effect of the moon and sun).

Waves
Waves are caused by wind. Wave height in the open
ocean is determined by three factors.
 Wind speed. The greater the wind
speed, the larger thewaves.
 Wind duration. The greater the
duration of the wind (or storm) the larger
the waves.
 Fetch. The greater the fetch(area
over which the wind is blowing - size of storm) the larger the waves.

TIDES
Tides result from the gravitational attraction of the sun and the Moon on the
oceans.
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 The four ways that waves and tides erode the coast are described below:
 Hydraulic action. Air becomes trapped in joints and cracks in the cliff face. When a
wave breaks, the trapped air is compressed which weakens the cliff and causeserosion.
 Abrasion. Bits of rock and sand in waves are flung against the cliff face. Over time they
grind down cliff surfaces likesandpaper.
 Attrition. Waves smash rocks and pebbles on the shore into each other, and they
break and become smaller andsmoother.
 Solution. Weak acids contained in sea water will dissolve some types of rock such as
chalk or limestone.

Sea Level Rise and Coastal Erosion

 Scientificresearchindicatessealevelsworldwidehavebeenrisingatarateof
0.14 inches (3.5 millimeters) per year since the early 1990s. The trend, linked to global
warming, puts thousands of coastal cities and even whole islands at risk of being
claimed by the ocean. This slow sea level rise helps to increase the rate of coastal
erosion.
 When sea levels rise rapidly, as they have been doing, even a small increase can have
devastating effects on coastal habitats. As seawater reaches farther inland, it can
cause destructive erosion, flooding of wetlands, contamination of aquifers and
agricultural soils, and lost habitat for fish, birds, andplants.
 When large storms hit land, higher sea levels mean bigger, more powerful storm surges
that can strip away everything in theirpath.
 Inaddition,hundredsofmillionsofpeopleliveinareasthatwillbecome
increasingly vulnerable to flooding. Higher sea levels would force them to abandon their
homes and relocate. Low-lying islands could be submerged completely.

Aside from coastal erosion, coastal processes result in submersion and

seawater intrusion.
Seawater intrusion is the movement of ocean water into fresh groundwater, causing
contamination of the groundwater by salt.
Although shoreline changes induced by erosion and accretion are natural processes
that take place over a range of time scales, most of the causes affecting coastal communities
are due to human intervention.
Human activities along the coast like land reclamation, port development, improper
waste disposal in combination with the natural forces often exacerbate coastal erosion in many
places and jeopardize opportunities for coasts to fulfill their socio- economic and ecological
roles in the long term at a reasonable societal cost.

COPING UP WITH NATURAL HAZARDS

Mitigation is a measure taken prior to the impact of a disaster to minimize its
effects.
Because of geographical location of our country, we are prone to different natural
hazards- Earthquake, tropical cyclones, volcanic eruptions, landslide, flashfloods and other
natural calamities. Coping up with various hazards is extremely challenging especially for the
people directly affected.

CHAPTER TEST
Identify the terms being referred to .
1. It is caused by a sudden release of strain in the earth'sinterior.
2. It is the movement of rock, debris or earth down aslope.
3. It begins when pressure on the magma chamber forces magma up
through the conduit and out of the volcano’svent.
4. It is a phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological oroceanographic
nature that may cause loss of life, injury or damage toproperty.
5. It occurs when water overflows or inundates landthat is normallydry.
6. a vital component for appropriate land use planning in flood-prone areas
7. a term used for big waves and high tides that occurs during
tropicalcyclones
8. a below-average precipitation in a given region, resulting inprolonged
shortages in its watersupply
9. the movement of ocean water into fresh groundwater,causing
contamination of the groundwater bysalt
10. a measure taken prior to the impact of a disaster to minimize its
effects

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