Quarter 2 - Module 1

Exogenic Processes: Weathering

The rock cycle is a process in which rocks are continuously transformed between the
three rock types: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. The rock cycle is best
explained as the relationship between earth’s internal and external processes, one of
these processes is weathering - breaking down of rocks.
Weathering is the process of disintegration (physical) and decomposition (chemical) of rocks.
Weathering is a process of breaking down rocks into small particles such as sand, clay, gravel
and other fragments. There are two types of weathering: mechanical weathering and
chemical weathering.
Mechanical weathering or physical weathering is the breakdown of
rocks into pieces without any change in its composition. In this process, the
size and shape of rocks changes and this occurs because of the following
factors shown in the table below.

Factors Description
Due to tectonic forces, granite may rise to form mountain range. After the
Pressure granite ascends and cools, the overlying rocks and sediments may erode.
At the point when the pressure diminishes, the rock expands, cools, and
became brittle and fractured.
Rocks expand and are fractured when expose to high temperature.
Temperature However, if the temperature drops to 0°C (freezing point of water), it also
expands and causes fracture.
Frost Generally, rocks have fracture in its surface and when water accumulates in
Wedging the crack and at that point freezes, the ice expands and breaks the rock
apart.
The breakdown of rocks is caused by impact and friction. This primarily
Abrasion occurs during collision of rocks, sand, and silt due to current or waves along
a stream or seashore causing sharp edges and corners to wear off and
become rounded.
Organic The roots grow causing penetration into the crack, expand, and in the long
Activity run, break the rock.
Human Activities such as digging, quarrying, denuding forests and
Activities cultivating land contribute to physical weathering.
Burrowing Animals like rats, rabbits and squirrels excavate into the ground to create a
Animals space for habitation.
 In chemical weathering, there are changes in the composition of rocks due to
the chemical reactions presented below.

Chemical Description
Reactions
It occurs in specific minerals which are dissolved in water. Examples of
Dissolution these minerals are Halite (NaCl) and Calcite (CaCO 3). The formation of
stalactites and stalagmites in caves are brought about by this chemical
reaction.
Hydrolysis Rock-forming minerals like amphibole, pyroxene, and feldspar react with
water and form different kinds of clay minerals.
It is the response of oxygen with minerals. If the iron oxidizes, the mineral in
Oxidation rocks decomposes. Rusting is an example of this chemical reaction.

Quarter 2 - Module 2
Endogenic Processes
Earth Science
Module 2 Heat in Earth’s Interior
Lesson 1

The solid outer layer is the crust which is composed of solid rocks and minerals. It holds all
known life forms on Earth. A semi-molten rock called magma lies in the mantle below the crust.
Beneath the mantle is the core. The outer core is a liquid mixture of nickel and iron while
the inner core is solid. The earth’s interior is the hottest of the three layers.

Internal Heat Sources

The Earth’s interior is very hot due to its internal sources. The sources of heat in our
planet can be identified as Primordial and Radioactive (Radiogenic) heat. The internal heat
energy that gradually gathered together during the early formation of the Earth by means of
dispersion in the planet on its few million years of evolution is called Primordial heat. The
major contribution of this internal heat is the accretional energy – the energy deposited during
the early formation of a planet. The core is a storage of primordial heat that originates from
times of accretion when kinetic energy of colliding particles was transformed into thermal
energy. This heat is constantly lost to the outer silicate layers of the mantle and crust of the
earth through convection and conduction.

On the other hand, the thermal energy released as a result of spontaneous nuclear
disintegration is called Radioactive or Radiogenic Heat. It involves the disintegration of natural
radioactive elements inside the earth - like Uranium, Thorium and Potassium. Uranium is a
special kind of element because when it decays, heat (radiogenic) is produced. Radioactive
elements exist everywhere on the earth in a fairly significant concentration. Without the process
of radioactive decay, there would be fewer volcanoes and earthquakes and less formation of
earth’s vast mountain ranges.

Redistribution of the Earth’s Heat

Both sources of heat whether primordial or radiogenic undergo heat transfer
(redistributed) and play an important role to the continuous changes and development of our
planet. The redistribution of the Earth’s heat happen through simultaneous conduction,
convection, and radiation. Convection occurs at the mantle, but not between the core and
mantle, or even between the asthenosphere and lithosphere (except at sea-floor spreading
zones).The only heat transfer mechanism in these transition zones and the Earth’s surface is
through conduction.

Module 2
How and Why Magma Rises Up
Lesson 2
Do you still remember what happened to Taal Volcano last January 12, 2020? Yes, you
are right. This volcano, which is located at the province of Batangas, spewed ash plumes up to
nine miles (14 kilometers) into the air due to a “steam-driven” or phreatic eruption.

The heat from the Earth’s interior is transferred and redistributed to the surface as molten
material or magma rises through the process called convection current. The rising magma
from the mantle brings heat with it which can melt the surrounding rocks at the shallower
depths. Magma can form in mid-oceanic ridges (spreading margins) through decrease in
pressure, mantle plumes (hot spots) through increase in temperature, and subduction zones
through addition of volatiles.
How and why magma rises up after it is formed?
After it is formed, magma rises up and is either ejected out to the surface through volcanoes
(volcanism) or solidifies within the shallower levels (plutonism).
 Density contrast: magma is less dense than the surrounding country rock. Magma rises
faster when the difference in density between the magma and the surrounding rock is greater.
- At deeper levels, magma passes through mineral grain boundaries and cracks in the
surrounding rock. When enough mass and buoyancy is attained, the overlying surrounding
rock is pushed aside as the magma rises. Depending on surrounding pressure and other
factors, the magma can be ejected to the Earth’s surface or rise at shallower levels
underneath (Fig. 2)
Figure 2. Two processes as
magma rises up: (1) ejected
out to the surface through
volcanoes (2) solidifies
within the shallower levels.
( Figure taken from Teaching
Guide for SHS Earth Science,
PNU and CHED Source: http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Igneousrock#/media/
File:Igneous_rock_eng_text
.jpg. Accessed: May 2,2016)

- At shallower levels, magma may no longer rise because its density is almost the same as
that of the country rock. The magma starts to accumulate and slowly solidifies (Fig. 3). When
the magma solidifies at depth, it can form different types of plutonic bodies (intrusive igneous
rocks).

Figure 3. The magma chamber and rising magma. Magma chamber

(Figure 3 Taken from Teaching Guide for SHS Earth Science, PNU and CHED; Source :
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/geology/images/batholith_gif_image.html)

 Viscosity: a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Magmas with low viscosity flow more
easily than those with high viscosity. Temperature, silica content and volatile content control
the viscosity of magma.

- Mafic magma is less viscous than silicic (felsic) magma because it is hotter and contains
less silica. Also, the volatiles in magma decreases viscosity.

-
 - Quarter 2 - Module 3
- Metamorphism
Rocks are subject to higher temperature and pressure as they are buried deep within the Earth.
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that form from the transformation of pre-existing rocks (igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks) through the process of metamorphism. Metamorphism
refers to changes in mineral components and texture of rocks due to changes in pressure and
temperature. Heat and pressure are the main factors that cause metamorphism. When heat
and pressure change the environment of a rock, the crystals may respond by rearranging their
structure. Metamorphism process does not melt the rocks, but instead transforms them into
denser, more compact rocks. They will form new minerals that are more stable in the new
environment. There are two main types of metamorphism; contact metamorphism and
regional metamorphism.

1. Contact metamorphism occurs when rocks are in contact with magma. The magma
will baked the surrounding rocks due to the different temperature. Heat and reactive fluids are
the main factors to this type of metamorphism. These factors caused alterations and
transformations to occur around the contact / metamorphic aureole of the intruding magma and
the rock layers. The aureole occurs on different scales depending on the sizes of the intruding
magma and the amount of water in the intruded rocks and the reactive fluids coming from the
magma. As a result, non- foliated metamorphic rocks were created. Some examples are
hornfels, quartzite, and marble. Marbles is formed by metamorphism of limestone.

2. Regional metamorphism occurs when great masses of rock change over a wide
area due to pressure exerted on rocks. It happens when rocks are deeply buried in the crust.
Deformed rocks exhibit foliation/lineation/ banding of mineral grains, brought about by
pressure and recrystallization of minerals while undergoing regional metamorphism. Examples
of foliated rocks include slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss formed by metamorphism of shale.

shale slate phyllite schist gneiss

in
Increasing metamorphism with increasing pressure

Table 1: Comparison of the types of metamorphism

Contact metamorphism Regional metamorphism

Factor Heat and reactive fluids Pressure

 Occurs on a relatively small scale
Location where it Occurs in a regional/large
around the vicinity of intruding
occurs scale
magma

Type of rock formed Non-foliated foliated

Example of rocks hornfels, quartzite, marble slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss

Quarter 2 - Module 4
Deformation of the Earth’s Crust

Lesso
Deformation of Rocks
n1

When people have too much stress they may break. What happens if a rock gets too
much stress?
Rocks respond differently to different types of stress and under different conditions.

Stress is a force applied to an object. In geology, stress is the force per unit area that is
applied to the rock. A rock’s response to stress depends on many factors. The factors include
the type of rock, the surrounding temperature and pressure, the type of stress, and the length of
time the rock is under stress. 

Types of Stress

Stress is a force exerted on an object, in this case, a rock. There are two general types
of stress.

 Confining stress takes place when a rock or sediment is buried and acts uniformly in all
directions.
 Directed stress only acts in one direction and is most likely associated with tectonic
activities. There are three types of directed stress, namely: compression, tension, and
shear stress.

a) Tension is a stress that pulls rocks apart. Rocks under tension lengthen or break
apart. Tension is the major type of stress at divergent plate boundaries.
b) Compression is a stress that squeezes rocks together. It causes rocks to deform by
folding or to fracture. Compression is the major type of stress at convergent plate
boundaries.
 c) Shear is a stress that occurs when forces are parallel but applied in opposite
directions. Shear stress is the major type of stress at transform plate boundaries.

In response to stress, rocks may either deform (change shape) or fracture (break). If
stress is removed from rocks that have deformed, they may or may not return to their original
shape.

Types of Rock Deformation

1. A rock undergoing elastic deformation goes back to its original size and shape once
the stress is removed.
2. Ductile deformation is a condition where moves in a plastic manner that could lead to a
permanent change in shape and size yet do not involve the breakage of rock.
3. Brittle deformation occurs when rocks surpassed their elastic limit leading to the
formation of fractures.

Quarter 2 - Module 5
Seafloor Spreading
Structure and Evolution of Ocean
Basins

Earth Science
Module 5, Lesson 1 Seafloor Spreading

Prior to the 1940s, very little was known about the deep oceans. During the World War
II, with the advances in electronics and sonar, it became technologically possible to map
the ocean floor in great detail.
Different observations and evidences that led to the proposal of seafloor
spreading;

A. Distribution of seafloor topographic features. There were distribution of mid-

ocean ridges and depth of the seafloor.
B. Sediment thickness. A fine layer of sediment covering much of the seafloor
becomes progressively thicker away from mid-ocean ridge axis; seafloor sediment
not as thick as previously thought.
C. High heat flow along mid-ocean ridge axis. It led scientists to speculate that
magma is rising into the crust just below the mid-ocean ridge axis.
D. Distribution of submarine earthquakes. The earthquakes do not occur randomly
but define distinct belts (earthquake belts follow trenches, mid-oceanic ridges,
transform faults.
E. Composition of oceanic crust - consist primarily of basalt

 Seafloor spreading is the basis for the modern theory of Plate Tectonics. It is the
process by which new seafloor is created as the plates are pulled apart and new
material emerges in the center gap.
 As seafloor ages and moves outward, it often eventually collides with continents
and is destroyed causing catastrophic earthquakes and volcanoes.

A. Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis

In 1960, Harry Hess advanced the theory of seafloor spreading. Hess proposed
that seafloor separates at mid-ocean ridges where crust forms by upwelling magma.
Newly formed oceanic crust moves laterally away from the ridge with the motion like
that of a conveyor belt. Old oceanic crusts are dragged down at the trenches and re-
incorporated back into the mantle.
The process is driven by mantle convection currents rising at the ridges and
descending at the trenches. This idea is basically the same as that proposed by Arthur
Holmes in 1920.

B. Proof for seafloor spreading

Magnetic stripes on the seafloor: detailed mapping of magnetism recorded in
rocks of the seafloor shows that these rocks recorded reversals in direction and strength
of the Earth’s magnetic field. Alternating high and low magnetic anomalies run parallel
to mid ocean ridges. Patter of magnetic anomalies also matches the pattern of magnetic
reversal already known from studies of continental lava flows.
Activity 3: Spreading Rates

To calculate the Full Spreading Rate (FSR) of a spreading center, you must figure out
how much new seafloor was created on each side of the spreading center in how many years.
For example, if 200 km of seafloor was created on each side (400 km total) in 10 million years,
the FRS 40 km/Myr (400km/10 Myr).

Earth Science
Module 5, Lesson 2
Structure and Evolution of Ocean Basins
 Many topographic features that exist on the ocean basin are obtained by using the
following technologies: echo sounder which was primarily developed for military purposes, side-
scan sonar and satellites that measure the height of sea surfaces. Using the principle of sound
reflection, scientists can determine the depth of the ocean.
Plates can spread apart by moving from each other. This creates hot molten rock, called
magma from the Earth’s mantle wells up. When magma seeps through the gaps, it solidifies as
it cools, creating a new layer of ocean crust. This creates structures, such as oceanic ridges,
which are continuous mountain chains located under the surface of the sea.

Stages of the Evolution of Ocean Basins

The Life Cycle of the Seafloor:

1. New seafloor forms at seafloor spreading centers and spreads out to both sides of the middle
causing the symmetric/mirror image pattern of seafloor ages and magnetic stripes;
2. Seafloor forms at different rates in different oceans, but always has the same mirrored
pattern;
3. Because seafloor spreading occurs on a sphere, the spreading center is broken up into new
many “ridge segments” that are connected by the other features called transform faults and
fracture zones;
4. Seafloor is destroyed at areas called subduction zones, where the seafloor dives underneath
another plate and into the mantle;
5. The deepest places on earth (called trenches) are associated with subduction zones and are
located near the coasts of the continents;
6. Subduction causes devastating earthquakes and explosive volcanoes, many of which are
located around the coats of the Pacific Ocean and termed the “Ring of Fire”
7. The Pacific Ocean is shrinking over time due to subduction, while the Atlantic Ocean is
growing because it has no subduction.

Different Features of the Ocean Floor

A. Continental Margin. It submerged outer edge of the continent where continental crust
transitions into oceanic crust.
 Passive or Atlantic type – features a wide, gently sloping continental shelf (50-200 m
depth), a steeper continental slope (3,000-4,000 m depth), and a flatter continental rise.
 Active or Pacific type – characterized by a narrow shelf and slope that descends into a
trench or trough
B. Abyssal plains and abyssal hill. Abyssal plain is an extremely flat, sediment-covered
stretches of the ocean floor, interrupted by occasional volcanoes, mostly extinct, called
seamounts. The word “abyss” which means very deep. Abyssal hills are elongate hills,
typically 50-300m high and common on the slopes of mid-oceanic ridge.
C. Mid-oceanic ridges. A submarine mountain chain that winds for more than 65,000 km
around the globe. It has a central rift valley and rugged topography on its flanks. Mid-ocean
ridges are cut and offset at many places by transform faults.
D. Deep-ocean trenches. The narrow, elongated depressions on the sea seafloor many of
which are adjacent to arcs of island with active volcanoes; deepest features of the seafloor.
E. Seamounts and volcanic islands. The submerged volcanoes are called seamounts while
those that rise above the ocean surface are called volcanic islands.
G. Continental shelf. Shallow gently sloping part of the continental crust with an average depth
of 130 m that borders the continents. The extent of this feature varies from tens of meters to
a maximum width of about 1,300 km.
H. Continental slope. It extends from the continental shelf at an average depth of 135 m. The
base of this steeply sloping (averaging from 1 to 250) topographic feature occurs at a depth
of approximately 2,000 m, marking the edge of the continents. The width of the slope varies
from 20 to 100 km. Both continental shelf and slope are considered structurally part of the
continents, even though they are below the sea surface. The boundary between the
continental slope and shelf is called continental shelf break.
 (Image source: http://www.visualdictionaryonline.com/earth/geology/ocean-floor.php)

Quarter 2 - Module 6
The Stratification of Rocks
and the Age of Stratified Rocks

EARTH SCI
Q2 MODULE The Stratification of Rocks
6 Lesson 1

Sedimentary rocks are formed from older rocks that have been broken down by water,
wind and deposited horizontally by gravity. The older rocks become sedimentary particles such
as gravel, sand, and mud. As time goes by, the particles accumulate, and those that are at the
bottom of the pile become rocks. Gravel becomes conglomerate; sand becomes sandstone; and
mud becomes shale or mudstone. These series of events form the different layers of rocks,
such process is called stratification. The animals or plants buried with them become fossils.
The most important feature of sedimentary rock is
stratification. Stratification is the process in which
sedimentary rocks or sediments are arranged in layers.
These create the banding pattern visible in stratified rock.
The rock layers formed by erosion and weathering of
mountains and the particles is transported and deposited in
the sedimentary basin, then the sediment particles cemented
over hundreds of years to form layers.
Stratigraphy is the science of rock layers (strata) and
layering (stratification). Geologists tend to use the term
“rock strata” when referring to many rock layers that appear over large areas. The singular
form “stratum” a Latin word that means spread out, can be used for a single layer, but
individual rock layers are called beds. A sequence of sedimentary layers stacked one atop the
other is known as stratigraphic section. Strata differs from one another depending on the
grain, size, kind, color and composition. Beds are layering in sedimentary rocks, which are
greater than 1 cm thick and lamination if the layering are less than 1 cm thick. Each bed or
layer represents an interval of time or a depositional event. Sorting is a description of the
distribution of sediment sizes. Well sorted sediments have uniform grain sizes. Poorly sorted
sediments exhibit a wide range of sediment sizes.
Types of Stratification:
 Bedding plane (Figure 3) is the boundary between two sedimentary layers that represent
separate depositional events. Bedding planes denote a pause or some change in the
nature of deposition.
 Cross bedding is characterized by a pattern of thin sediment layers that accumulated at
an angle to the main strata, often reflecting shifts of direction by waves along a coast,
currents in streams, or wind over sand dunes.
 Graded bedding results when sediments are deposited from suspension, coarser and
denser materials settle first, followed by progressively finer grained material. In extreme
conditions, the suspended load of a flooded river may consist of pebbles, sand, silt, and
clay. As flooding recedes, the suspended load will be progressively deposited according to
grain size, forming graded bedding.

EARTH SCI
Q2 MODULE 6 The Age of Stratified Rocks
Lesson 2

Sedimentary rocks are of particular importance to Earth’s history. As layer upon layer of
sediments are accumulated, they carry with them the records of the nature of the
environment at the time sediments are deposited. Geologists gathered information and
evidence from fossils embedded in sedimentary rocks to create a listing of rock layers
from oldest to youngest.

The two methods employed by geologists to determine the order in which events have
happened during Earth’s history are Relative Dating and Absolute Dating.

1. Relative Dating
Any method of determining whether an event or object is older or younger than the other events
or objects.
* Principle of Original Horizontality
When sediments are deposited, they form essentially horizontal or flat
layers. A corollary of this principle is that tilted sedimentary rocks were
originally horizontal and that they must have been subjected to rock
deformation.
*Principle of Superposition
New rock layers are always deposited on top of existing rock layers. Therefore, deeper layers
must be older than those closer to the surface. The bottommost layer is the oldest and the
topmost layer is the youngest.
* Principle of Lateral Continuity
Rock layers extend laterally and cover very broad areas, especially if they formed at the bottom
of ancient seas. As long as there is sufficient supply of sediments, the layer will continue to
extend further. Erosion may have worn away some parts of the rock, but the layers on either
side of the eroded areas still match.
*Principle of Cross-cutting Relationship
It states that a layer or stratum must always be older than any feature that cuts or disrupts it.
For example, if a layer is cut by a fault, the layer is older than the fault that cuts across it.
*Principle of Unconformity
An unconformity is a surface of non-deposition or erosion. Accumulation of sediments continues
until the supply of sediments is cut off or if the area is subject to uplift and erosion. Uplift to the
surface exposes rocks to the agents of weathering and erosion. The horizontally layered
sedimentary unit on top is separated from the underlying folded rocks by an unconformity.
Rocks above an unconformity are younger than the rocks below. Types of unconformities:
*Nonconformity - the layer below the erosional surface is either a metamorphic rock or an
igneous rock. The layer above the erosional surface is a sedimentary
rock.
*Angular Unconformity - attitude of beds above and below the surface
of erosion or unconformity are not the same.
*Disconformity - sedimentary rock strata above and below the surface
of erosion are parallel to each other.
*Paraconformity - beds are parallel to each other. There is no
discernable erosional surface; however, there is a gap in the ages
between the rock units.
Figure 4 Types of Unconformities. (Image Source: https://s-media-cache-
ak0.pinimg.com/564x/7f/9e/ca/7f9eca0770d4b6f0e8cd457454173a77.jpg)

*Principle of Faunal Succession

It was developed by William Smith, an English engineer in late 1700s.
He recognized that fossil groups were succeeded by other fossil
groups through time. A kind of living thing had succeeded another
when its population increased after the population of the other kind
disappears from Earth.
2. Absolute Dating
In the late 1800s, scientists were able to measure the absolute age or
the exact age of some rocks in years. Absolute dating allows
scientists to assign numbers to the breaks in the geologic time scale
and get an absolute age of a rock or fossil.
Methods:
* Radioactive Decay- the process in which a radioactive isotope
tends to break down into a stable isotope of the same element or another element. A half-life is
the time needed of a sample of a radioactive substance to undergo radioactive decay.
*Radiometric Dating- a method of determining the age of an object by estimating the relative
percentages of a radioactive (parent) isotope and a stable (daughter) isotope.
Types:
*Radiocarbon Dating
This is used to find the age of once living materials between 100 and 50,000 years old. It is
usually used to determine ages of human fossils and habitation sites. Measuring the amount of
Carbon-14 enables geologist determine the age of the animal and plat fossil.
*Potassium-Argon Dating
Potassium, the technique is used to date rocks from 100,000 years to over a billion years old.
Measuring the ratio of potassium-40 to argon-40 yields a good estimate of the age of that
crystal.
*Rubidium- Strontium Dating
The unstable parent isotope Rubidium-87(half-life:49 billion years) forms the stable daughter
isotope Strontium-87. This method is used to date rocks older than 10 million years.
* Uranium-Lead Dating
Two uranium isotopes are used for radiometric dating:
• Uranium-238 decays to lead-206 with a half-life of 4.47 billion years.
• Uranium-235 decays to form lead-207 with a half-life of 704 million years.