Notes in Earth and Life Science # 3

The Source of the Earth’s Internal Heat

Sources of heat in our planet can be identified as Primordial Heat and Radiogenic Heat.
Primordial heat is the internal heat energy accumulated by dissipation in a planet during its first few million
years of evolution. The main contributions to the primordial heat are accretional energy – the energy deposited
by infalling planetesimals – and differentiation energy. On the other hand, the thermal energy released as a result
of spontaneous nuclear disintegration is called Radiogenic Heat. It involves the disintegration of natural
radioactive elements inside the Earth-like Uranium, Thorium, and Potassium. During the process of decay, the
energy of alpha, beta, and gamma radiation are converted to the thermal movement of atoms thus releasing heat
into its surrounding. The flow of heat from Earth's interior to the surface comes from two main sources in equal
amounts: the radiogenic heat produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust, and the
primordial heat left over from the formation of the Earth. Radioactive elements exist everywhere on the earth in
a fairly significant concentration. Without the process of radioactive decay, there would be fewer volcanoes and
earthquakes – and less formation of earth’s vast mountain ranges.
We all know that heat is a form of energy that is transferred between systems with different temperatures.
Both sources of heat whether primordial or radiogenic undergo heat transfer and it plays an important role in the
continuous changes and development of our planet. In connection to these, we will describe the three processes
on how heat transfers.
1.Conduction- governs the thermal conditions in almost entire solid portions of the Earth and plays a very
important role in the lithosphere. Its processes happen on the earth’s surface. It can be defined as the transfer of
energy from one molecule to another by direct contact. This transfer occurs when molecules hit against each other.
Conduction takes place in solids, liquids, and gases, but works best in materials that have simple molecules that
are located close to each other. For example, metal is a better conductor than wood or plastic.
2. Convection- is the movement of heat by a fluid such as water or air. The fluid (liquid or gas) moves from one
location to another, transferring heat along with it. An example of this is the convection currents in the mantle.
3. Radiation- is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves. When you stand in the sun, you are warmed by
the electromagnetic waves, mainly infrared radiation (and to a lesser extent, visible light), that travels from the
sun to Earth. Unlike conduction or convection, heat transfer by radiation does not need any matter to help with
the transfer.

A
B C
How does the heat inside Earth moves continents, build mountains and ridges? The plate tectonic system
derives if energy from the Earth’s interior. As the plates move as a result of heat-driven convection cells in the
mantle, they interact with adjoining plates forming different boundaries each displaying distinct landform
features. Divergent plate boundaries are formed in areas where the convection cells move away from each other.
(Observe A). The convection cells slowly push the older rock away from the boundary in both directions, making
way for a new seafloor. Convergent plate boundaries are formed when two plates collide with each other.
Depending on the circumstances a trench or mountain can be formed. A quick fact. The Himalayas Mountain
range was formed due to the collision between the Indian and the Eurasian plate.
Formation of Magma
What is magma?
Magma is composed of molten and semi-molten rocks located beneath the Earth, specifically in the
melted mantle rock and oceanic plate. This molten state, when solidified, creates various kinds of igneous rocks
found inside Earth, and on the surface of the Earth.

Magma vs. Lava

Both magma and lava are molten rocks, the only difference is their location. Magma is found in the magma
chamber of the volcano while lava is found on the surface of earth once the volcano erupts. When the magma
solidifies inside the planet it produces intrusive igneous rocks, otherwise known as plutons. Igneous rocks that
form from magma contains large crystals. On the other hand, igneous rocks that resulted from that solidification
of lava are called extrusive igneous rocks. These igneous rocks have very small crystals. Plutonism refers to the
igneous processes that occur below the surface.

Magmatism
The process under the earth’s crust where the formation and movement of magma occur. These happen in
the lower part of the Earth’s crust and the upper portion of the mantle, known as the asthenosphere.

Composition of Magma
The composition of magma greatly depends on the rock it was formed from (by melting), and the
conditions of that melting. Magmas derived from the mantle have higher levels of iron, magnesium, and calcium,
but they are still likely to be dominated by oxygen and silicon, but in general, magma is commonly made up of
the following elements. Oxygen- 46.6%, Silicon- 27.7%, Aluminum- 8.1%, Iron- 5.0%, Calcium- 3.6%, Sodium-
2.8%, Potassium- 2.6%, and Magnesium- 2.1%.

How magma is formed?

The magma present in the lower crust and upper mantle of the Earth is formed or generated through the
process of partial melting. In this process, different minerals in rock melt at different temperatures and pressure,
since most rocks are made up of several minerals with different melting points.
Melting in the mantle requires one of three possible events to occur:
1. Increase in temperature
➢ An increase in temperature is the most typical mechanism for the formation of magma within the
continental crust. Such temperature increases can occur because of the upward intrusion of magma
from the mantle. As magma rises from the mantle to the crust, the temperature of the magma is
enough to melt the rock that it touches. This happens in convergent boundaries. In subduction areas
the crust that went under the less dense crust is exposed to the hotter temperature of the mantle,
given the right circumstances magma will be formed.
2. A decrease in pressure
➢ Despite very high temperatures rock can remain solid if exposed to immense pressure. For these
rocks to melt and produce magma a decrease of pressure around those rocks is needed. During
convection these hot rocks are slowly being brought to the surface, reducing the pressure
 experienced by the rock little by little. This triggers the melting of magma. This process mostly
occurs in mid-oceanic ridges.
3. Addition of volatiles.
➢ Flux melting occurs when water and other volatile components are introduced to hot solid rocks.
This results in the decrease of the solidus temperature of the rock. This happens in subduction
zones. The volatile components of the crust are released to the neighboring rocks, lowering their
melting temperature, triggering partial melting.
o Solidus temperature refers to specifies the temperature below which a material is
completely solid, and the minimum temperature at which the rock can melt.

Plate Tectonics
Forces that Deform the Crust
Tectonic Forces can be divided into 3 types depending on the direction of the applied forces.
➢ Compressional Tectonic Forces
➢ Tensional Tectonic Forces
➢ Shearing Tectonic Forces
1. Compressional Tectonic Forces
➢ Tectonic forces push two areas of crustal rock together. It tends to shorten and thicken the crust.
How the crust responds to this tectonic force depends on how brittle the crust is, and how fast the
force was applied. Folding of the crust happens when the compressional tectonic force is applied
to a bendable rock. Rocks that are deep within the crust are generally bendable due to high
pressure. The crust is more likely to fold if the compressional tectonic force is applied slowly.
Down folds are called synclines while upfolds are called anticlines. Faulting occurs when the
tectonic force is applied to a brittle crust. Resulting in the slippage or displacement of rocks along
a fractured surface. The fracture in which the movement occurred is called a fault.

Folding Faulting
 2. Tensional Tectonic Forces
➢ Applies a pull in opposite direction, causing the impacted pair to stretch and thin out. Rocks
generally respond to this kind of stress by faulting, rather than bending or stretching plastically.
This kind of tectonic force breaks the crust into discrete blocks called fault blocks that are
separated from each other by a normal fault.

3. Shearing Tectonic Forces

➢ Vertical displacement along a fault occurs when the rock on one side moved in an up or down
motion concerning the rock on the other side.

Types of Plate Boundaries

Convergent Plate Boundary

• The heavier oceanic crust sinks below the lighter continental crust. It happens along convergent
boundaries where plates are moving toward each other and sometimes one plate sink under another
(subduction). When a denser oceanic crust meets a less dense continental crust, the oceanic crust
subducts under the continental crust creating subduction zones. Marianas Trench marks where the fast-
moving Pacific Plate converges against the slower-moving Philippine Plate. This boundary is often sitting
of major volcanoes such as Mount Fuji in Japan. In a collision of two pieces of oceanic crust, the result is
a chain of volcanic islands, of which Indonesia is a prime example. Where oceanic crust collides with a
plate-carrying continent, the result is a chain of volcanoes on the continent such as the Cascade of volcanic
chain in the Pacific Northwest of the US and the Andes Mountains of South America. When two
continental crusts collide, the result is a range of mountains such as Himalayan Mountain ranges.
Divergent Plate Boundary
• Divergent Plate Boundaries are boundaries where the earth’s tectonic plates are moving apart. For the
most part, these boundaries are located on the ocean floors, where they form a continuous chain of volcanic
mountains and rifts called mid-ocean ridges that extend throughout the earth’s oceans. MidAtlantic Ridge
is a good example that runs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. As the plates move apart, magma
wells up to fill the space between them, and this is why divergent plate boundaries are the sites of volcanic
activity. It is also a set where the earth’s crust is growing

Transform Plate Boundary

• It is also called a strike-slip fault boundary, the plates slide past each other horizontally. This is a type of
boundary that cuts through California, the well-known San Andreas Fault. The San Andreas fault zone,
which is about 1300 km long and is tens of kilometers wide, slice through two-thirds of the length of
California. Along with it, the Pacific Plate has been for 10 million years, at an average rate of about 5cm/yr
(Pavico and Faraon, 2007, 193).