Earth Materials

Look at the three pictures of very diverse rocks in the images below. How are they different? How
are they alike? Which Earth systems created these materials? What processes work to recycle
the rock materials on Earth? Where does all the energy needed for these processes come from?

Eroded basalt rock along Folded gneiss rock in an Weathered sandstone

a beach in Washington Arizona mountain arches in Utah

The black basalt along the beach is actually an eroded lava flow from an ancient volcano. Basalt is
classified as igneous rock because it formed from molten magma. Gneiss rock was formed when
buried rock layers remelted and cooled, resulting in bands of minerals that have been folded.
Gneiss is classified as metamorphic rock because existing rock was changed due to tremendous
underground heat and pressure. Sandstone, a type of sedimentary rock, was formed from
sediments collected at the bottom of ancient rivers or seas that were buried and became solidified.
Later, the area was uplifted and exposed the sandstone. The sandstone was eroded repeatedly by
winds that sculpted the formation into the arches and openings you see today.

The story of these three rock types is the story of our

Earth and the constant recycling of materials above and
below its surface through the interaction of four major
systems on Earth: the geosphere (rocky lithosphere),
the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water and ice),
and the biosphere (living things). All of Earth’s
processes are the result of energy flowing and matter
cycling within and among the planet’s systems.

This energy is derived from the Sun and Earth’s

hot interior. The energy that flows and the matter
that cycles produce chemical and physical
changes in Earth’s materials and living
organisms.

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 Earth Materials

The Rock Cycle

Geologists classify rocks into three categories: sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. How do
you think the three major rock types are formed? Rocks are separated into these three types
based on how they are made. Sedimentary rocks come from the erosion, deposition, and
cementation of sediments laid down at the bottom of bodies of water, such as a riverbed, lake bed,
or ocean floor. Igneous rocks form from the melting and cooling (crystallization) of magma, lava, or
other rocks that were melted deep within Earth. Metamorphic rocks are preexisting rocks that
have changed due to heat and pressure.

When rocks undergo additional processes, they can change from one type of rock to another.
Depending on the processes, any type of rock can become any of the other types. It could even
become a new rock of the same type. For example, a sedimentary rock could become a
metamorphic rock, an igneous rock, or a new type of sedimentary rock. This depends on what
happens to it. The processes by which rocks change into new rocks make up the rock cycle.
Remember, energy from the Sun and Earth’s hot interior drives the processes in the rock cycle.

Gneiss Granite

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 Earth Materials

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed when lava or magma cools
and solidifies. This solidification is known as
crystallization. Molten rock under Earth’s surface is
called magma. When magma reaches the surface, it is
called lava. Igneous rocks have interlocking mineral
crystals that vary in size depending on how rapidly they
cooled. When magma cools slowly under Earth’s
surface due to high temperatures, the mineral crystals
grow very large. Igneous rocks that cool slowly under
Earth’s surface are known as intrusive igneous rocks.

Intrusive igneous rocks: diorite (left) and granite (right)

When lava cools on Earth’s surface, it solidifies very quickly, resulting in small crystals. Sometimes
no crystals will form at all. In that case, the rock will have the characteristics of glass. One example
is obsidian (shown below). A volcano may shoot blobs of lava into the air. These blobs have many
air bubbles, like pumice (shown below). They cool so quickly that they solidify before they hit the
ground. Lava that oozes out and cools can form a black rock called basalt (shown below). Igneous
rocks that cool quickly on or above Earth’s surface are known as extrusive igneous rocks. To
remember this concept, think of “external” when considering extrusive igneous rocks. Extrusive
igneous rocks form on Earth’s surface.

Extrusive igneous rocks: basalt (left), obsidian (middle)

and pumice (right)

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 Earth Materials

Sedimentary Rock Formation

Where do you think all the sediments that form sedimentary rocks come from?
● Weathering: Rocks can be broken down by
forces on Earth in a process called
weathering. Once rocks are broken down, the
smaller pieces are called sediments. The
weathered pieces can be from anywhere you
find rocks, such as mountains, plains,
valleys, etc.
● Erosion: Sediments can be carried from
place to place. This process is called erosion.
Erosion carries sediments through wind,
water, gravity, or other means. For
example, sediments can travel downstream in a river or can roll downhill in a landslide.
● Deposition: Eventually, sediments stop moving and settle into layers at the bottom of rivers,
lakes, or oceans. This process is called deposition.
● Compaction and cementation: New layers of sediment build up slowly over time, pressing
down on the layers below. Dissolved minerals, such as calcite and silica, cement the grains
together. In time, compaction and cementation lead to the formation of a sedimentary rock,
such as sandstone or conglomerate.

These hills are made of sedimentary rock called sandstone.

Sandstone was deposited underwater, one layer on top of
another, before all the layers of rock were compacted and
cemented together. This area was eventually uplifted, and after
many years, weathering and erosion have exposed the
formations visible today. The rock cycle is continuous.

Not all sedimentary rocks form from the pressure of

compacting sediments. When minerals come out of a
solution and settle on the ocean floor, a chemical
sedimentary rock forms. Gypsum (on the left) is an
example of a chemical sedimentary rock. Organic
sedimentary rocks, such as limestone (on the right),
Gypsum (left) and limestone (right) are
form from the remains of living things.
chemical sedimentary rocks.

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 Earth Materials

Metamorphic Rocks
When rocks are buried deep in Earth’s
crust, heat and pressure can cause the
buried rocks to change into new rocks.
These are called metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphic rocks start out as some other
kind of rock, such as sedimentary, igneous,
or even other metamorphic rocks. Rocks
get buried under tremendous heat and
pressure from the layers on top of them.
This compacts and melts existing rocks.
Heat and pressure can change the grain
size and even the minerals that make up
those rocks, producing new types of rocks
in a process called metamorphism.
One physical change, foliation, is caused by extreme pressure
applied to the rock from just one direction. This forms alternating
.
bands of different-colored crystals. Gneiss is an example of a
foliated metamorphic rock that is formed from banded sandstone.
Metamorphic rocks are often characterized by bands or wavy
layers of mineral crystals or by the presence of unusual minerals.

Chemical changes can also occur during metamorphism. Under heat and pressure, mud that is
compressed into shale (a sedimentary rock) changes to slate (a metamorphic rock).

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 Earth Materials

Match each of the numbered terms below with the letter of the best description.

A. Forms by compaction and cementation

____1. Igneous rock

B. Forms from lava and magma

____2. Sedimentary rock

C. Forms from heat and pressure

____3. Metamorphic rock