BALI 2013 East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines

BALI 2013
East Asia:
Geology, Exploration
Technologies
and Mines
non-corporate Sponsors
EXTENDED ABSTRACTS
An Australian Institute of Geoscientists
symposium organised in conjunction with
MEMR Geoscientists Symposia
EMD Geological Survey Indonesia 27-29 May 2013

bali, indonesia
Sponsors
Volume compiled by Julian Vearncombe
Bulletin No. 57 - 2013
East Asia: Geology,
Exploration Technologies and Mines
- Extended Abstracts
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Bulletin number 57
ISBN 1 876118 42 3
ISSN 0812 60 89
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ORGANiSING COMMITTEE
• Julian Vearncombe (SJS Resource Management)
• Jocelyn Thomson (Geoscientists Symposia & AIG)
• Bill Hewitt (PT PZC Services, Jakarta}
• Sandy Moyle (Goldminex Resources, Melbourne and Port Moresby)
• Priyo Pribadi (Samindo Resources, Jakarta)
• Wayne Spilsbury (Geoduck, Perth)
Typesetting
Joanne Hamilton, e-type design joanne@etypedesign.net.au
East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines
Thank you to our sponsors:
non-corporate Sponsors
MEMR
EMD Geological Survey Indonesia
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East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines
Thank you to our trade booths and supporters:
Contents
Author title Page
Investigation of a High Sulfidation Epithermal Cu-Au Deposits Using

Satriya Alrizki, Rusiana Permana 1
Induced Polarization And Magnetic Method in Batang Asai, Jambi
The Exploration, Discovery and Development of the Way Linggo
Mike Andrews 3
Epithermal Gold-Silver Mine in Southern Sumatra
Malcolm G. Baillie The Ingredients of Successful Exploration 5
Kelvin Brown New Exploration Technologies 6
Petrology and Electron Microprobe Analyses in Target Generation and

Rowena Duckworth, Kevin Blake 7
Metallurgy
Nickel Laterites in SE Asia – Geology, Technology and Economics:
KEYNOTE: M. Elias 9
Finding the Balance
Robert G. Ellis, Barry de Wet, Ian N. Macleod Inversion of Magnetic Data from Remanent and Induced Sources 12
The Liamu Complex of the Papuan Peninsula; regional significance for

R. H. Findlay, S. Meffre the tectono-thermal history and discovery within the Papuan Peninsula, 17
PNG
Mark Gabbitus From Exploration to Extraction 18
Tectonic and Structural Controls to Porphyry and Epithermal

KEYNOTE: Steve L. Garwin Mineralization in the Cenozoic Magmatic Arcs of Southeast Asia and the 19
West Pacific
Helen Gibson, John Sumpton, Des 3D Modelling of geology and gravity data:
24
FitzGerald, Ray Seikel Summary Workflows for Minerals Exploration
Chinese Minerals Exploration Methods and Philosophy: Implications for
Matthew R. Greentree, Gavin Chan 27
Out-bound Investment
KEYNOTE: Graeme Hancock Realising the Mineral Potential of Mongolia 29
KEYNOTE: Craig J. R. Hart, Richard J. Goldfarb A Framework for China’s Gold Exploration and Endowment 30
The Tombulilato Copper Gold Project in Sulawesi, Indonesia ‘Facing the

Dedy Hendrawan, Gayuh ND Putranto 32
Challenges and Opportunities’
Geophysics of the Elang Cu-Au Porphyry Deposit, Indonesia, and
T. Hoschke, S. Schmeider, S. Kepli 34
Comparison with Other Cu-Au Porphyry Systems
J. M. A. Hronsky Controls on High-grade Au Ore-shoots: Towards a New Paradigm 36
Ramping-up Exploration Value from Aeromagnetic Surveys

KEYNOTE: David Isles 39
– More Geological Input Needed!
Cu-Au Porphyry System of Atlantis Prospect, Papua Province:
Hashari Kamaruddin, Hartono, Ciputra 42
A Preliminary Report
poster: Imants Kavalieris, Khashgerel Bat-
Formation of Advanced Argillic Zones 43
Erdene
David Lawie Sorting the Signal From the Noise 44

Contents
Author title Page
Biogeochemistry and Partial Digest Techniques in Mineral Exploration

Evgenia Lebedeva, Andrew Riley 46
– a Brief Review
poster: Sony Malik, Ferdian Haryadi, Gita Geothermal Surface Manifestation and Alteration of Conggeang Area,
48
Srikandi Mount Tampomas, Sumedang Regency
Porphyry Copper-Gold Mineralization Styles along the Eastern Sunda
Adi Maryono, Rachel Harrison 58
Magmatic Arc, Indonesia
D. Menzies, S. Shakesby, J. Wass, D. Finn, N.
Fitzpatrick, G. Morehari, B. Tekeve, B. Alupian, The Wafi-Golpu Porphyry Cu-Au Deposit: Mineralisation and Alteration
60
J. Kur, N. Kulinasi, G. Miam, J. Larsen, D. Peter, Zonation, Surface Geochemical Expression and Paragenesis
P. Golias
Case Study: Discovery and Geology of the Kham Thong Lai Copper-Gold
Paul Merriner 64
Deposit, Lao PDR
The Magmatic Arc and the Slate Belt: Copper-gold and Tin-tungsten
KEYNOTE: AHG Mitchell, Myint Thein Htay 66
and Gold Metallotects in Myanmar
Chris J. Muller, Kieran Harrington, Mineralisation Potential of the Kulu-Fulleborn Trend (Whiteman Range),
68
Hugh McCullough, Lindsay W. Bandy New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea
Yulia Nazimova, Gregory Ryan Alluvial and Bedrock Platinum, East Asia 71
A. H. (Tony) Osman The History of Coal Development in Indonesia 73
Interpolating Assays and Physical Properties in Folded and Faulted

Rod Paterson 74
Layered Geology
Rusiana Permana, Sufian Nur Hikmat,
Porphyry Cu-Au Occurrences in Batulicin Area, Batangasai, Jambi
Yosafat P. Simanjuntak, Eratmadji, 76
Province, Indonesia
Bronto Sutopo
C. Querubin, S. Walters, M. Papio, W.
The Pani Gold Project: Geology and Mineralization 77
Satiyawan
Tectonics and Metallogeny of Mainland Southeast Asia
Neal Reynolds 78
– Framework for New Discovery Opportunities
Age and O, Hf Isotope Systematics of the Yandera Porphyry Rocks -
M. P. Roberts, R. A. Armstrong Constraints on Magma Sources, Crystallisation History and Crustal 80
Evolution
Stephen Sugden Field Portable XRF – Good Techniques to Avoid Bad and Ugly Analyses 83
Erric Sukmawan,Yosafat Palty Yudhistira

A Lithocap in The Bujang Prospect, Jambi Province: Related or not
Simanjuntak, Wanda Ilham Dani, Rusiana 85
Related to the Porphyry Cu – Au Mineralisation System
Permana, Bronto Sutopo
poster: Adi Sulaksono, Muhammad A. Hydrothermal Alteration Study In Tertiary Volcanism
87
Luthan, and Putu A. Andhira Ayah Area, Southern Central Java
Geoff Taylor, Greg Corbett, Grace Cumming Cirianiu Epithermal Au, Vanua Levu, Fiji 89
Andrew J. Vigar, Ian Taylor, Greg MacDonald Resource Estimation for the Aurukun Bauxite Deposit 91
Brad Whisson Developments in Microwave Digestion for Geochemical Analysis 92

1 l Investigation of a High Sulfidation Epithermal Cu-Au Deposits Using Induced Polarization and Satriya Alrizki, Rusiana Permana
Magnetic Method in Batang Asai, Jambi
Investigation of a High Sulfidation Epithermal Cu-Au

Deposits Using Induced Polarization and Magnetic
Method in Batang Asai, Jambi
Satriya Alrizki1 and Rusiana Permana2
A detail geological investigation has been carried out year, using 5 m spacing between each data point collected,
in Batang Asai area, Jambi province for prospecting the the magnetic survey covered 16,5 kilometres over Gunung
indication of gold mineralization in the area. Geological Bujang prospect. The alteration at Gunung Bujang prospect
investigation has resulted in several mineralization prospect is not magnetic destructive, we could still find a magnetic
areas such as Batulicin prospect, Kayuaro prospect, Hulu characteristic mineral such as magnetite,hematite,pyrite
Banyak ikan prospect and Gunung Bujang prospect. over the outcrop in Gunung Bujang. The magnetic data
Especially in Gunung Bujang prospect, the mineralization was filtered by using Oasis Montaj Geosoft software to
consists of covellite, chalcocite, and enargite in advanced produce RTP (reduce to pole) Map with 25 meters upward
argilic alteration zone (pyrophyllite-alunite-dickite- continuation.
kaolinite±diaspore) and also siliceous (vuggy-massive The overlay result between RTP (reduce to pole) map
quartz). Based on the evaluation of geological data mineral and distribution of alteration by Short Wavelength Infra
alteration in Gunung Bujang prospect, it is concluded that Red (SWIR) shows that the minerals pyrophylite, dickite,
the mineralization type was Deep HSE (High Sulphidation alunite, kaolinite (lithocap) and other minerals such as
Epithermal) with alteration found in the form of quartz muscovite, diaspore etc are localized at moderate to high
alunite, phyropilite, paragonite, and muscovite. zone of magnetic anomalies, the same characteristis is found
Induced Polarization (IP)
surveys were conducted
by PT.ANTAM Unit
Geomin in the late 2012.
Approximately 9 lines
for a total 11 kilometres
of 25 m dipole-dipole
was read with 100 metres
between lines over Gunung
Bujang prospect. The
Induced Polarization (IP)
data was inverted using
a 2D algorithm by Earth
Imager AGI to produce a
block model and section of
resistivity and chargeability.
From the IP result it
shows significant anomaly
correlation between high
resistivity from over a
thousand ohm meter and
high chargeability for a
hundred msec, in about 180
m of depth penetration. A
detailed magnetic data was
also collected during that
1. PT. Antam (Persero) Tbk.- Unit Geomin, Jl. Pemuda No.1, Jakarta Timur. Telp. 021-4755380, Fax. 021-4759860
Corresponding author: satriya@antam.com; rusiana.permana@antam.com
East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

2 l Investigation of a High Sulfidation Epithermal Cu-Au Deposits Using Induced Polarization and Satriya Alrizki, Rusiana Permana
Magnetic Method in Batang Asai, Jambi
in the prospects of Elang Prospect in Sumbawa through features simultaneously with the Induced Polarization (IP)
measurement of airborne magnetic survey. Airborne RTP data to reveal the distribution and localized conductive
magnetic anomaly pattern in Elang prospect at Sumbawa, minerals that related to Deep HSE mineralization deposit in
a type of porphyry Cu-Au mineralization is almost the subsurface.
similar to its pattern with the Gunung Bujang prospect
Groundmagnetic RTP anomalies. From Gunung Bujang References
magnetic anomalies we could find bull’s eye anomalies
Tim Eksplorasi Emas Jambi, Laporan Eksplorasi Emas dmp - Semester II tahun
constituted from the RTP Map (high magnetic surrounded 2012, Daerah Batulicin dan Gunung Bujang, Kabupaten Merangin, Propinsi
by low magnetic). Even more interesting is the presence Jambi, Unit-Geomin PT ANTAM (persero) Tbk, 2012
of two high magnetic patterns, one pattern flanking Tim Eksplorasi Geofisika Jambi, Laporan Penyelidikan Geofisika Metoda IP
magnetic low. In addition, to identify potential areas of dan Magnetik - Semester II tahun 2012, Daerah Gunung Bujang, Kabupaten
alteration, the magnetic data contains a significant amount Merangin, Propinsi Jambi, Unit-Geomin PT ANTAM (persero) Tbk, 2012
of information that may reveal geological and structural

3 l The Exploration, Discovery and Development of the Way Linggo Epithermal Gold-Silver Mine MIKE ANDREWS
in Southern Sumatra
The Exploration, Discovery and Development of the

Way Linggo Epithermal Gold-Silver Mine in
Southern Sumatra
MIKE ANDREWS1
The Way Linggo gold-silver mine was successfully brought g/t. Mining is by traditional narrow vein generally hand held
into production in August 2010 by Kingsrose Mining methods, haulage underground by electric locos.
(the project’s 85% major shareholder). This marked the The Contract of Work was signed in December 1986 with
culmination of some 26 years of exploration by seven Musswellbrook Energy and Minerals as the foreign partner
different companies over a regional tenement which who selected the area covering most of the outcrops of
originally covered approximately 9,500 sq km. Miocene andesitic volcanics in Lampung province. They
The Way Linggo mine is situated centrally in the 4th undertook a number of regional geochemical drainage
Generation PT Natarang Mining Contract of Work area sampling programmes over the entire 9,500 sq km and
which currently is 100 sq km bounded on the north and identified the drainages in the Way Linggo area as lower
westerly sides by the Bukit Barisan National Park and order geochemical anomalies, no follow up was carried
to the east by tracts of unprospective recent volcanics. out. In 1989 Ashton Mining took over the project and
The tenement is focused on the northern truncation of followed up the higher order anomalies elsewhere in the
the Semangka Graben which western boundary is the tenement without success. By chance during a brief follow
Trans Sumatra Fault and the East side is bounded by the up traverse in drainages some 15 km downstream of the
Semangka Fault. The Trans Sumatra Fault is the major long mine two pieces of banded quartz vein float were sampled
lived strike slip fault running the length of the Western however these gave low gold grades (2.3 and 3.4 Au g/t),
portion of Sumatra which has had a profound regional the project geologist ( Joel Ivey) recognised the interesting
influence on the localisation of volcanicity and related epithermal textures and instigated further follow up which
epithermal and porphyry mineralisation on that island. lead to the discovery of an extensive epithermal float train
These two large fault systems converge at the northern end in the drainage 2.5 km to the east of Way Linggo, the
of this graben and have generated a complex dilational zone Semung Kecil prospect. Soil surveys identified a well defined
characterised with active pull-apart basins on scales of 10’s gold, arsenic, silver c-horizon soil anomaly coincident
kms down to 100’s metres and dilational splays. with some surface outcrops of siliceous sinter, however
At Way Linggo underground mining is mainly focussed on trenching an exploration adit and subsequent drilling failed
the high grade North Vein a low sulphidation epithermal to confirm significant mineralisation at Semung kecil (It
vein system comprising two en-echelon ore bodies which does still remain an inticing target). During mapping of the
are texturally distinct, the A Orebody dominated by a peripheral areas west of Semung Kecil narrow epithermal
white Quartz-Adularia-Clay assemblage and B Orebody veins were found exposed in streams to draining into the
characterised by a Quartz- Calcite-Green Smectite- Way Linggo waterfall, a soil grid was undertaken in this area
Chlorite? assemblage. These zones average approximately to the south of the current mine which confirmed a 450 m
5 m in width and appear to be joined by a link vein system. by 250 m gold, arsenic soil anomaly and trenching identified
The ore bodies at Way Linggo are best developed where numerous narrow 10 cm to 1 m epithermal gold bearing
hosted in a porphyritic dacite intrusive host and appear veins but generally of low grade. A 1 m wide vein outcrop
to loose grade tenor where the bounding structure enters exposed due to low river levels river indicated that the
andesitic tuffs along strike to the north. soil grid should be extended over the northern part of the
prospect, although no coherent anomalies were detected, a
Kingsrose Mining has commissioned a 140,000 tpa
single spot high of 6 g/t Au in C-Horizon soil was trenched
Merill-Crowe processing plant fed from the Way Linggo
uncovering the subcrop of the North Vein.
underground mine from two adit accesses, an external 700
feet railed skipway to haul ore from the main haulage levels Ashton Mining and its spin off Aurora Gold refocused
and an internal shaft. The initial JORC compliant resource elsewhere in Indonesia, notably on the development of the
on mine start up was 669,000 tonnes @ 8.44 Au g/t, 129 Ag Mount Muro Mine in Kalimatan and in 1994 the Project
1. Southern Arc Minerals Inc. (Formerly Director, Kingsrose Mining Ltd), Graha Sentana, Jl. Buncit Raya, Jakarta 12760, Indonesia
Corresponding author: mandrews@pacificgoldfields.com

4 l The Exploration, Discovery and Development of the Way Linggo Epithermal Gold-Silver Mine MIKE ANDREWS
in Southern Sumatra
was taken over by Meekatharra Minerals which instigated Kingsrose has undertaken a very extensive exploration
discovery drilling. Meekatharra Minerals focus was to prove programme of the entire tenement, including using BLEG
up enough ore to sustain a 30,000 oz per annum high grade geochemistry, airborne magnetics and radiometrics,
gold project so work focussed on completing a feasibility and CSAMT coupled with aggressive diamond drilling
study on the project, this was completed in 1996. However campaigns. They have been rewarded with the discovery of
the Bre-X scam and collapsing gold price saw Meekatharra, their second mine Talang Santo which is currently under
renamed AuIron Energy refocusing on its Australian construction. Kingsrose currently reported a JORC resource
coal and iron ore assets at the time many companies were of 485,869 oz Au at grades of 6.91 Au g/t and 45 Ag g/t
exiting Indonesia. A private consortium Advance Concept (all categories) in their 2012 Annual report.
Holdings Ltd acquired the project from AuIron in 2000 and The Way Linggo project is a good example of the need for
commenced limited underground development to access the a persistence of exploration effort, requirement for good
North Vein orebody to enable level development to confirm geological observation, not to miss the right signs and
grades predicted from drilling. Face sampling revealed blindly follow the assays and corporate commitment to
significantly higher grades than the drill core. aggressive drilling campaigns.
The ACH consortium successfully floated Kingsrose Mining The prospectivity northern extent of the Semangka graben
on the ASX in December 2007 and in February 2009 has been highlighted by the discovery the Way Linggo
Kingsrose acquired the project and focussed on rapid project mine but its potential as a new mineral district has only
construction. For the Year ending June 2012 Kingsrose been identified by the aggressive exploration and drilling by
reported a production of 37,650 oz Au and 432,754 oz Ag Kingsrose Mining.
from Way Linggo at one of the lowest cash operating costs
per ounce.

5 l The Ingredients of Successful Exploration Malcolm G. Baillie
The Ingredients of Successful Exploration

Malcolm G. Baillie1
While the primary skill of the Exploration Manager is his involved. Each considers its role as the most important, and
geological knowhow, this alone is not enough to guarantee they may not have a common view on all issues. In recent
success. There are a mass of non-technical issues which he months, many new regulations have been issued. Some
must manage to avoid failure, even when a good resource is of these have a distinctly negative effect on exploration,
present. Broadly, these issues relate to good communication and some are not clear. It is essential that the Exploration
with corporate management, dealing with the environmental Manager fully understands the nature of these regulations
and social issues specific to the project location, relationships and communicates their impact on the project to corporate
with Government authorities and operating in accordance with management. While few amongst the mining sector dispute
the regulatory regime. This presentation looks at the nature the Government’s policy to seek an appropriate return
of these non-technical factors for Indonesian projects, and from mining operations, it seems likely that the regulations
how, in many cases they can take up more of the Exploration actually put into place will have the effect of strangling the
Manager’s time than the exploration program itself. industry.
The difficulties in successfully managing these issues have New mining operations are essential to maintain the
resulted in the abandonment of more than one project in industry, and these are entirely dependent on successful
Indonesia, and have contributed to the very low level of grass exploration. Exploration and mining are two very different
roots exploration now taking place. Some of the reasons activities. Exploration involves high risk with less than
for this are examined, including what is believed to be a one in a hundred projects leading to a mine. Mining is a
significant lack of understanding of the nature of exploration business, subject to feasibility before commitment like any
by the public in general, and by regulators specifically. other. Quite different companies seek involvement in the
One of the first responsibilities of the Exploration Manager two sectors – junior exploration companies dominating
is to communicate frankly and in a timely fashion with his the exploration field. Yet the regulations seek to cover
corporate management. This is where the finance originates. both activities as if there is an inevitable follow on. It is
The head office of this organisation is usually based offshore more realistic to view exploration as normally leading to
and its management may not be familiar with the issues the creation of new geological data and not to a mine.
encountered. It has to report to shareholders, who are even less The Government should seek its return from mines and
familiar with the local issues, and confidence in the exploration encourage exploration companies to spend their precious
team is rapidly lost if shocks are encountered. There is more funds efficiently on finding them.
than one recent case which illustrates this problem. The necessary support could be provided within the existing
Environmental issues are generally minimal during Mining Law if the difference between exploration and
exploration, but local communities generally expect all mining was understood. Approvals for exploration activities
exploration to result in a mine, so it is important to consider (e.g. Forestry Permits) could be simplified and streamlined
the potential impact at an early stage and to communicate to avoid the unnecessary costs of delay, and if the need for
with local people and improve their understanding. The exploration to be spread over many projects was recognised.
establishment of a sound relationship with the local In summary, there are many factors which contribute to
community from the very beginning is critical. This cannot a successful exploration program. Some are technical,
be done without thorough profiling of the local community and some are non-technical. All need to be assessed
and the leaders and should precede any field work. Once before starting field work and all need to be continuously
trust with the local community is lost, it is very difficult to monitored. Excessive difficulties associated with any could
recover. Employment policies, land acquisition and dealing be the basis for not commencing field work or curtailing it
with illegal mining all require a cooperative approach. once started. Exploration funds are limited and have to be
Dealing with Government authorities is another critical directed where there is the best chance of success.
matter. Regional, Provincial and Central Government are all
1. Chairman, Forum for Exploration and Mining Development, Indonesia Corresponding author: malcolmbaillie@regional-advisory.com

6 l New Exploration Technologies Kelvin Brown
New Exploration Technologies

Kelvin Brown1
Data Acquisition
Past: A brief look back at how we gathered geological data
during the mineral exploration drilling process.
Present: How data is currently gathered, the improvements
made to date and the shortcomings that still exist.
Future: A look at where we need to take this process by
utilising new technologies & methods in a way that increases
production, reduces costs and improves the data availability.
Data Management
How do we manage this data that is expensive to acquire? Is
it secure? Which data do we need sooner?
Over the recent decade our ability to generate vast quantities
of data has significantly increased but has our capability to
manage this data increased with it?
Here we will look at state of the art systems that can help us
to identify the important information needed to make the
best decisions and how we can get this information quickly
to the stakeholders.
1. Imdex, 8 Pitino Court, Osborne Park, Western Australia 6017 Corresponding author: imdex@imdexlimited.com

7 l Petrology and Electron Microprobe Analyses in Target Generation and Metallurgy Rowena Duckworth, Kevin Blake
Petrology and Electron Microprobe Analyses

in Target Generation and Metallurgy
Rowena Duckworth1 and Kevin Blake2
Optical microscopy is a traditional technique for

characterising rocks and describing the mineral textures and
parageneses. However, it is a technique that is not used as
widely as it used to be, despite its ability to provide relatively
factual information about rocks reasonably quickly and
cheaply. Electron Microprobe Analysis (EPMA) is a more
modern analytical technique that utilises X-ray detection
methods to provide definitive mineral chemistries and
element identification. Both of these techniques can be
used on regular polished thin sections (no extra thickness
of thin section is required for microprobe work). These
two techniques combined can, therefore, divulge abundant
information about core, chip and outcrop samples that is
useful for target generation and, down the track, metallurgy
and mineral processing.
One of the most important uses of optical microscopy is to
complement/ contradict the hand specimen descriptions, EPMA back scattered electron image showing dark grey pyrite grains
especially those generated during routine core logging. that have been variably brecciated and replaced by several telluride
Submitting one or two samples for petrology from phases (with differing brightness). At this scale, using reflected light
each lithology encountered is recommended, as logging microscopy there may be just a hint of another phase present in the pyrite
descriptions can prove to be unreliable, and should always and with the naked eye it may not be apparent at all.
be groundtruthed before mineralisation models and target
generation plans are developed. An example of this is a
suite of rocks logged as amphibolites that systematically Microscopic description of rocks can also help with the
failed to contain any amphibole when observed using refinement of stratigraphy and structure, the identification
transmitted light microscopy. This type of hand specimen of geological and hydrothermal processes and assist with ore
mis-identification is common, and can lead to incorrect grade vectoring from near miss drill holes.
mineralisation models.
Staining techniques are largely not used these days due to
As well as determining the major, minor and accessory modern OHS regulations as they utilise hydrofluoric acid.
minerals in a rock sample optical microscopy can identify: Hence microprobe analyses can be helpful in determining
• Primary mineralogy carbonate chemistries and feldspar chemistries, which often
• Metamorphic minerals, textures, metamorphic facies, cannot be determined optically.
and the degree and sequence of ductile or brittle Electron microprobe analysis can additionally provide
deformation events crucial information with respect to the location of elements
• Alteration mineralogies and facies of interest: e.g. gold? Gold can occur as native gold, bonded
with other elements to form a mineral, e.g. sulphosalts,
• Vein and selvage mineralogy as inclusions within a mineral or bound up in the lattice
• Sequence of events (paragenesis) including the timing of another mineral phase. Often assays will indicate
of ore mineralising events: did the ore minerals come in the presence of significant gold, but in hand specimen
early or late? and even under the optical microscope, it is difficult/
1. Gnomic Exploration Services, Townsville, Qld 4810 Corresponding author: rowenaduckworth@bigpond.com

2 Advanced Analytical Centre, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld 4814

8 l Petrology and Electron Microprobe Analyses in Target Generation and Metallurgy Rowena Duckworth, Kevin Blake
impossible to locate the gold. EPMA imaging and energy has a better resolution but is more time consuming, as
dispersive (EDS) chemical analysis can usually resolve this it requires calibration for each element to be analysed
problem. The back scattered electron image below is from (major plus minor elements of choice, F, Cl, Cu, Co, Te,
a deposit where the company was not sure from the assay Ag etc.) and each analysis can take 3-4 minutes depending
data whether the gold was occurring as free gold or as on the elements being measured. However, the results
telluride complexes. Microprobe analysis showed that there are definitive and can be extremely useful as exploration
was native gold as well as a range of telluride complexes vectors. Quantifying and then mapping the amount of a
including, gold, gold-silver, silver-gold, iron and mercury particular trace element in a particular mineral is a powerful
tellurides. This highlights the need to understand the mineralisation vectoring method.
correlation between assay data and the mineralogy. Microprobe analyses can also be useful in the processing
For quantitative mineral analysis, EDS or wavelength stage of mining in order to identify any contaminants,
dispersive analysis (WDS) can be used depending on the adverse or beneficial, which may affect the final mineral
detection limits of the elements in question. WDS analysis concentrate.

9 l Nickel Laterites in SE Asia – Geology, Technology and Economics: Finding the Balance M. Elias
keynote
Nickel Laterites in SE Asia – Geology, Technology

and Economics: Finding the Balance
M. Elias1
This presentation reviews the nature and genesis of nickel

laterite mineralisation, and describes the relationship
between deposit characteristics (both geological and non-
geological) and the successful development of lateritic
deposits as commercial nickel producers. The importance of
nickel laterites lies in their huge resource base, which could
potentially provide a much greater share of global nickel
production than their current level compared to nickel from
sulphides.
Nature of nickel laterite mineralisation

Most of the world’s terrestrial nickel resources are hosted
in nickel laterites. These are products of intense weathering
in humid climatic conditions of Mg-rich or ultramafic Figure 1. Schematic laterite profile developed on ultramafic rock in a
rocks which have primary Ni contents of 0.2-0.4%. The tropical climate, showing indicative chemical compositions in wt%.
process of lateritisation involves the breakdown of primary Parts of the laterite profile which are viable sources of feed for the
minerals and release of their chemical components into respective extraction methods are shown.
groundwater, the leaching of mobile components, the residual
concentration of immobile or insoluble components, and the common to most examples, and it is possible to describe
formation of new minerals which are stable in the weathering the range of laterite types formed over ultramafic rocks on a
environment. The combined effects of these processes is deposit scale in terms of three main categories on the basis
to produce a vertical succession of horizons of differing of the dominant Ni-bearing mineralogy developed in the
chemistry and mineralogy (the laterite profile), the overall profile:
structure of which is governed by the differential mobility of Oxide laterites: comprise largely Fe oxyhydroxides and
the elements in the weathering zone. The detailed structure oxides (mainly goethite) in the upper part of the profile,
of the profile varies greatly, and in any one place is the result
overlying altered or fresh bedrock;
of the dynamic interplay of climatic and geological factors
such as topography, drainage, tectonics, structure and parent Clay laterites: comprise largely smectitic clays in the upper
rock lithology. Nickel (and typically cobalt) can be enriched part of the profile, and
to ore grade in parts of the profile by being incorporated into Silicate laterites: comprise hydrated Mg-Ni silicates
the structure of the newly formed stable minerals or into the (serpentine, garnierite) occurring deeper in the profile, which
alteration products of primary minerals. may be overlain by oxide laterites.
Figure 1 is a diagrammatic representation of a typical laterite Although the detailed morphology and composition of the
profile developed in a tropical environment. At the base of deposits can vary greatly on a small scale (tens of metres),
the profile, initial stages of weathering produces saprolite, deposit scale and regional scale controls result in broad
in which the unweathered rock fabric is preserved, although consistencies in deposit characteristics over wider areas. For
most of the original minerals may have been altered. As example, lateritisation of tectonically uplifted ultramafic
weathering proceeds, Mg and Si are leached until in the massifs which host most of the nickel laterites in New
upper part of the profile only insoluble Fe oxides remain. Caledonia has produced thick silicate laterite deposits, and
This is referred to informally as limonite. physical erosion has removed most of the oxide laterites. A
Despite the complexity and interplay of controls, there are more subdued topography in the Philippines has resulted
a number of broad features of the laterite profile that are in greater preservation of the oxide zone and generally less
1. Principal Consultant – Nickel, CSA Global Pty Ltd, West Perth Corresponding author: ???

intense alteration in the silicate laterite zone. Clay laterites • Sample assaying – the most commonly used methods
are not represented in the SE Asia-Pacific region as the employ XRF on either fused glass disks or pressed
climatic and tectonic controls required for their formation powder pellets.
are absent. • Bulk density and moisture determinations – the porous
Global resources of nickel laterites are estimated to contain nature and high moisture contents of laterites make these
in excess of 150 million tonnes of nickel. Of this total, over difficult.
50% is found in New Caledonia, Indonesia, the Philippines
and Papua New Guinea. That such a large proportion of Mineral processing and metal extraction
global resources is found in a relatively small area is due to
About 50% of primary nickel produced globally is sourced
the favourable combination of tectonic and climatic factors.
from lateritic ores.
Tectonically active zones typical of the region are often
associated with oceanic or continental plate boundaries and Methods currently in use on a commercial scale to extract
collision zones, where thrust faulting has obducted slabs nickel from laterites comprise three main processing
of upper mantle peridotites and associated rocks forming routes:
ophiolite complexes with extensive areas of exposure at • Smelting to produce ferro-nickel or matte, including
surface. Tectonic processes (i.e. uplift) play a large part in nickel pig-iron (NPI),
influencing the type of nickel laterite deposits formed.
• Caron process (reduction roast – ammoniacal leach), and
Exploration and resource delineation • Leaching using sulphuric acid, under atmospheric or
high pressure conditions.
Exploration for Ni laterites does not present significant
Due to the requirements of each process and the wide range
technical problems. The occurrence and distribution of
in chemical and mineralogical composition in the laterite
ultramafic rocks is well known in most, if not all, deeply profile, each of these processes is only suited to a part of
weathered terrains. They can be readily and more precisely the profile. No commercially applied process has yet been
delineated at regional to local scales by airborne magnetic developed to economically treat the entire profile, and this
surveys, which can also be used to outline lithological variation, remains the “holy grail” of laterite processing. Thus any
stratigraphy and favourable structures. Within appropriate processing method has to be carefully matched with the
areas, preliminary geomorphological, regolith-landform and mineralogical and compositional range of the deposit it is
structural maps can be prepared from aerial photography, a intended to treat. Figure 1 shows the applicability of each
variety of remote sensing techniques and magnetic surveys process within the profile.
to determine the most prospective sites for potential Ni
accumulation. Follow-up by inspection, field mapping and Each of the processes has drivers which influence not only
drilling are used to outline the potential resource. production cost but also non-economic factors such as plant
location. Some of these include:
Diamond core drilling is the most common method of
• Smelting – highly energy intensive, requires cheap
sampling for resource delineation. Initial drilling on a wide-
power; ore chemistry (Si:Mg ratio) is critical; no benefit
spaced grid is followed by progressive infill drilling in areas
from by-product credits; product well suited to stainless
of better results. Ni laterite deposits show great variation in
steel production.
the distribution of Ni and other elements, profile thickness
and other characteristics over short distances. Advanced • Caron process – highly energy intensive; high capital
exploration for accurate estimation of resources and reserves cost; poor by-product (Co) recovery.
and for reliable mine planning therefore relies on having an • Acid leaching – sensitive to acid consumption and
adequate drilling density; generally a 25-50 m grid is used. sulphur cost; high capital cost; technology risk; good Ni
Subsequently, precise grade control and careful blending and Co recovery; tailings storage and effluent disposal
of mined ore categories are required to minimize variation issues in tropical environments.
in the composition of plant feed and thus optimize plant
Because the processing method is essentially determined by
operating conditions. Grade control commonly requires
the type of deposit, it follows that infrastructure and plant
drilling or sampling on grids of 5-10 m.
location should be capable of supporting its operation.
Other factors to be aware of in resource delineation
programs and mine planning include: Ingredients of a successful laterite project
• Core recovery – laterites often comprise a mixture of
History has shown that new nickel laterite development
hard rock boulders in a soft matrix. HQ-sized core is
projects have a very patchy record of success. Commercial
generally required to ensure adequate sample recovery. development of nickel laterite projects is a high risk
• Drilling should extend at least two to three metres undertaking due to the high capital costs involved and
into bedrock to ensure that the entire profile has been the need for the application of the highest standards of
intersected. technology and engineering. However, there are a number

of natural attributes of nickel laterite deposits that, if they

applied in new projects, would improve their chances of
successful development and becoming profitable operations.
It helps to have a quality orebody in terms of size, grade,
consistency, and ore and overburden thickness, and the SE
Asian region is well endowed in this respect. Nevertheless,
successful projects clearly also require a favourable
combination of geological, mineralogical and mining factors,
technical and engineering factors related to the process
flowsheet, infrastructure-related factors and environmental
considerations.

12 l Inversion of Magnetic Data from Remanent and Induced Sources ROBERT G. ELLIS, Barry de Wet,
Ian N. Macleod
Inversion of Magnetic Data from Remanent

and Induced Sources
ROBERT G. ELLIS 1, Barry de Wet2 and Ian N. Macleod1
Summary to the highly non-unique nature of potential field

inversion making it extraordinarily easy for a potential field
Magnetic field data are of fundamental importance in inversion to produce a seemingly plausible model which
many areas of geophysical exploration with 3D voxel agrees satisfactorily with the observed data, even when a
inversion being a common aid to their interpretation. In fundamental assumption in the inversion is flawed.
the majority of voxel based inversions it is assumed that Several authors have reported progress toward magnetic
the magnetic response arises entirely from magnetic data inversions including remanent effects (for example,
induction. However, in the last decade, several studies Shearer and Li 2004, Kubota and Uchiyama 2005,
have found that remanent magnetization is far more Lelièvre and Oldenburg 2009). In this work we report
prevalent than previously thought. Our experience with further progress in this direction with a technique we
numerous minerals exploration projects confirms that the call Magnetization Vector Inversion (MVI), which
presence of non-induced magnetization is the rule rather incorporates both remanent and induced magnetization
than the exception in base metals exploration. without prior knowledge of the direction or strength of
In this work we show that failure to accommodate for remanent magnetization. In the following sections,
remanent magnetization in 3D voxel-based inversion can we extend conventional scalar susceptibility inversion
lead to misleading interpretations. We present a technique to a magnetization vector inversion, that is, we allow
we call Magnetization Vector Inversion (MVI), which the inversion to solve for the source magnetization
incorporates both remanent and induced magnetization amplitude and direction. While this increases the number of
without prior knowledge of the direction or strength of variables in the inversion we will show by example that the
remanent magnetization. We demonstrate our inversion same regularization principles that allow compact targets
using model studies and field data. Successful application to be resolved in highly unconstrained scalar susceptibility
to numerous minerals exploration surveys confirms that inversion also apply in vector inversion.
incorporating remanent magnetization is essential for the Perhaps our most significant finding is that MVI,
correct interpretation of magnetic field data. or more generally, inversion including all forms of
magnetization, significantly improves the interpretation of
Introduction the majority of minerals based magnetic field inversions.
Unfortunately, the surprising degree of improvement
The utility of magnetic field data in many areas of
in interpretability cannot be adequately presented in
geophysical exploration is well-known as is the application
a paper and can only be verified by direct experience.
of 3D voxel inversion to aid in magnetic data interpretation
Consequently, while we have applied MVI to a large
(for example, Li and Oldenburg 1996, Pilkington, M.,
number of magnetic field surveys and find the results
1997, Silva et al. 2000, Zhdanov and Portniaguine 2002, to
to be significantly superior to conventional scalar based
cite just a few). In the majority of voxel based inversions it
inversion, in this paper we are forced to limit our attention
is assumed that the magnetic response arises entirely from
to a synthetic case and field data from the Cu-Au Osborne
magnetic induction.
deposit located approximately 195km SE of Mount Isa, in
However, in the last decade, studies have found that Western Queensland, Australia.
remanent magnetization is far more prevalent than
previously thought (McEnroe et al. 2009) and affects crustal
rocks as well as zones of mineralization. Unfortunately,
Method and Results
remanent magnetization can seriously distort inversion Let us begin with the very general assumption that the
based on the assumption that the source is only induced magnetic properties of the earth can be represented by a
magnetization. The severity of the distortion is due volume magnetization, M(r) (Telford et al. 1990). We make
1. Geosoft Inc. Suite 810, 207 Queens Quay West, Toronto, ON, Canada Robert. Corresponding author: Robert.Ellis@Geosoft.com
2. Ivanhoe Australia Ltd., Level 13, 484 St Kilda Road Melbourne, VIC, 3004, Australia

Ian N. Macleod
no assumptions about whether source of the magnetization

is induced, remanent, or otherwise.
Example - Buried Prism
From magnetostatics, the magnetic field B at point rj Although the buried prism model is far too simplistic to
resulting from a volume V containing magnetization, M(r), is have exploration significance, it does make an
given by excellent pedagogical example, so we follow tradition
and begin by considering the inversion of simulated TMI
data over a buried prism with magnetization vector M
perpendicular to the earth field. The model consists a cube
This expression shows directly that the magnetization vector with side length 40m buried with a depth to top of 20m and
M(r) is the natural parameter for inversion. This is a crucial a magnetization vector in the EW direction, (My = 0, Mz = 0)
observation. as shown in Figure 1.
If the volume V consists of a collection of N sub-volumes vk Simulated TMI data are shown in Figure 2 for Earth field
each of constant magnetization mk then with inclination 90° and amplitude 24000 nT. Cardinal
directions have been chosen only for simplicity of
explanation; any directions could be chosen with equivalent
results. Also for simplicity, the data were simulated at 20m
constant clearance and on a regular 8m grid.
This defines the forward problem: given a set of sources Inverting the TMI data in Figure 2 yields the model
mk (k =1,..,N) then Bj is the predicted magnetic field shown in Figure 3 which should be compared to the true
anomaly at points, rj (j=1,..,M). Note that the coordinate model shown in Figure 1. There is some variability in the
index is summed over indicating that we are free to choose magnetization direction but the predominant direction is
the most computationally convenient internal coordinate clearly EW, in agreement with the true model.
system. It also suggests that a coordinate invariant quantity,
such as the amplitude, M(r) = lM(r)l will be most robustly
determined from the data.
For conciseness, we will represent Eq (2) simply as
The vector magnetization inverse problem is defined

as solving for m given B subject to an appropriate
regularization condition. Although there are many choices
for the regularization (see for example, Zhdanov 2002), we
choose without loss of generality, the familiar Tikohonov
minimum gradient regularizer. The inverse problem becomes
solving for m in,
Figure 1.The buried prism model with magnetization vector orientation
(Easterly) shown by the green cones. Side=100m
where in the first line, the total objective function f is

the sum of a data term fD and a model term fM with a
Tikohonov regularization parameter, l . The second line
defines the data objective function in terms of the data
equation (3) and the error associated with each data point.
ej. The third line gives the model objective function in terms Figure 2. The TMI data simulated over the magnetization vector model
of the gradient of the model ∂g m and the amplitude of the shown in Figure 1. The axes are in metres.
model, with weighting terms as required, wg w0 . The fourth
line indicates that the Tikohonv regularization parameter Vector magnetization models in 3D are difficult to interpret
l is chosen based on a satisfactory fit to the data in a directly in all the but the simplest cases. In real-world
chi-squared sense, XT2. In addition, other constraints, such as exploration we need some simpler derived scalars which
upper and lower bounds, can be placed on m as appropriate highlight the important information in the vector model. As
to the specific exploration problem. suggested by Eq(1), the most robust and meaningful scalar

Ian N. Macleod
Figure 3: The MVI recovered model for comparison with Figure 1. The
magnetization vector orientation shown by the green cones.
is the amplitude of the vector magnetization and this should Figure 4: (a) A cross section through the true model, (b) the recovered
amplitude of the magnetization vector, (c) the amplitude of the
be the primary quantity used in interpretation. However,
perpendicular-to-earth-field components of the magnetization, (d) the
since the magnetization vector direction is the earth field projection of the magnetization on to the earth field direction. The
direction for induced sources, it is tempting to attempt colour scales indicate the MVI magnetization in normalized to SI
to use the directional information recovered in MVI to (see text).
generate scalars related to the earth field direction.
There are many possibilities but we have found that three
useful derived scalars for exploration are: the amplitude
of the magnetization, the earth field projection of the
magnetization, and the amplitude of the perpendicular-to-
earth-field components of the magnetization. In exploration
problems, the amplitude is robust by being independent
on of any assumptions regarding the earth field, while the
amplitude perpendicular is an approximate indicator of
non-induced magnetization. To support our findings, these Figure 5: (a) A cross section through the true model, (b) the
three derived scalars are shown in Figure 4b, c, d for an recovered scalar susceptibilty. The color bar shows the susceptibility
East-West slice through the model volume bisecting the magnitude in SI.
target in the true model.
In exploration situations it is convenient to present
exploration environments based on experience from many
MVI output normalized by the amplitude of the earth’s
magnetic surveys, however this cannot be shown here.
magnetic intensity in the area of interest. That is, our
results are displayed as where is the amplitude of the earth’s Example - Osborne
magnetic intensity in the area of interest. By using this
The preceding pedagogical study of MVI on simulated
normalization in an area of purely induced magnetization,
data over a prism provides a solid basis for the much more
the numerical values returned by MVI inversion will be
important application of MVI to field data. As mentioned
directly comparable to those of scalar susceptibility inversion,
in the Introduction, it is hard to appreciate fully the impact
in our case in SI.
on magnetic data interpretation by including non-induced
For completeness, and to show the contrast between MVI magnetic sources. However, to motivate our assertion, we
and conventional scalar inversion, Figure 5b shows the present typical results taken from TMI data collected over
equivalent section through a model produced by an the Osborne deposit.
inversion which assumes only induced magnetization. As
The history of the Osborne mine is well described elsewhere,
should be expected, the recovered model using scalar
see for example, Rutherford et al. 2005. Briefly, significant
inversion is a very poor representation of the true
Cu-Au mineralization beneath 30-50m of deeply weathered
model, which in real-world exploration ultimately adds
cover was confirmed in 1989. Intense drilling between 1990
significant confusion to the interpretation process. and 1993 defined a total measured and indicated resource
This simple prism example demonstrates the power of of 11.2 Mt at 3.51% Cu and 1.49 g/t Au. Exploration since
magnetization vector inversion and its advantage over scalar 1995 has delineated high-grade primary mineralization
susceptibility inversion in cases where the magnetization dipping steeply East to some 1100 m vertical depth. As of
vector direction deviates from the earth field direction. 2001, total mined, un-mined and indicated resources are
We argue that this situation predominates in real-world reported to be about 36 Mt and 1.1%Cu and 1 g/t Au

Ian N. Macleod
(Tullemans et al. 2001). Current exploration is focussed on

mapping the high- grade mineralization to greater depths
and mapping similar structures in the surrounding area. The
geophysics includes total magnetic intensity (TMI) data over
the property, which is shown in Figure 6. The TMI data were
acquired in 1997 flown at 40m clearance on 40m line spacing.
Figure 7: An EW section through the recovered MVI model amplitude

at the Osborne property with the now known mineralization
shown in black. The color bar gives the normalized amplitude in SI.
The axes are in metres.
Figure 6: The observed TMI data acquired over the Osborne property.
The axes are in metres. The color scale shows the TMI amplitude in nT.
Magnetization Vector Inversion of the Osborne TMI

data yields the magnetization vector amplitude earth
model shown in Figure 7. Superimposed (in black) is
the subsequently discovered mineralization from extensive
drilling and underground mining. For comparison, Figure
Figure 8: The same section as in Figure 7 for the scalar model with
8 shows the corresponding scalar susceptibility inversion.
drilling and mineralization in black. The color bar gives the susceptibility
Comparing Figure 7 and Figure 8 shows that inverting for in SI. The axes are in metres.
the magnetization vector provides a much better model
for interpretation. The scalar inversion fails to represent
reality in this case suggesting, most likely, that the scalar remanent magnetization is recommended for the correct
assumption is violated: a common occurrence in mineral interpretation of the majority of magnetic field data.
exploration in our experience. In contrast the MVI model
is consistent with the drilling results, and furthermore, Acknowledgements
indicates a steeply dipping volume on the Eastern flank. The The authors would wish to thank Geosoft Inc. and Ivanhoe
strong near surface anomaly to the west of the dipping zone Australia Ltd. for permission to publish this work.
is known banded ironstone.
Conclusions References
Butler, R. F., 1992, Paleomagnetism: magnetic domains to geologic
We have argued that remanent magnetization must terranes, Blackwell Scientific Publications.
be included in magnetic field data inversion in order to Kubota, R., and Uchiyama A., 2005, Three-dimensional magnetization
avoid seriously misleading interpretations. To support this vector inversion of a seamount, Earth Planets Space, 57, 691–699
argument we demonstrated the value of Magnetization Li, Y., and D. W. Oldenburg, 3-D inversion of magnetic data, Geophysics,
Vector Inversion using model studies, and field data from 61, 1996, 394-408.
the Osborne property. The degree of improvement Lelièvre, P. G., and Oldenburg, D. W., 2009, A 3D total magnetization
afforded by using MVI in all areas of magnetic field data inversion applicable when significant, complicated remanence is present,
inversion may seem surprising, however recent advances Geophysics, 74, L21-L30
in understanding remanent magnetism suggest that McEnroe, S. A., Fabian, K., Robinson, P., Gaina, C., Brown, L., 2009,
non-induced magnetization plays a far more important Crustal Magnetism, Lamellar Magnetism and Rocks that Remember,
role than previously thought in the origin of magnetic Elements, 5, 241-246.
anomalies. Successful application to numerous Pilkington, M., 1997, 3-D magnetic imaging using conjugate gradients,
minerals exploration surveys confirms that incorporating Geophysics, 62, 1132-1142.

Ian N. Macleod
Rutherford, N. F., Lawrance, L. M., and Sparks, G., 2005, Osborne Cu-Au Tullemans, F. J., Agnew P., and Voulgaris, P., 2001, The Role of Geology
Deposit, Clonclurry, North West Queensland, CRC LEME Report. and Exploration Within the Mining Cycle at the Osborne Mine, NW
Queensland, in Monograph 23 - Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve
Shearer, S., and Y. Li, 2004, 3D Inversion of magnetic total gradient data in
Estimation - The AusIMM Guide to Good Practice, Australian
the presence of remanent magnetization: 74th Annual Meeting, SEG,
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, 157-168.
Technical Program, Expanded Abstracts, 23, 774-777.
Zdhanov, M. S., 2002, Geophysical Inverse Theory and Regularization
Silva, J. B. C., Medeiros, W. E., and Barbosa, V. C. F., 2001, Potential-
Problems, Method in Geochemistry and Geophysics 36, Elsevier
field inversion: Choosing the appropriate technique to solve a
Science B.V., Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
geologic problem, Geophysics, 66, 511 - 520.
Zhdanov, M. S., and Portniaguine, O., 2002, 3-D magnetic inversion
Telford, W. M., Geldart, L. P., Sherriff, R. E., and Keys, D. A., 1990,
with data compression and image focusing, Geophysics, 67,
Applied Geophysics, Cambridge University Press.
1532-1541

17 l The Liamu Complex of the Papuan Peninsula; regional significance for the tectono-thermal R. H. Findlay, S. Meffre
history and discovery within the Papuan Peninsula, PNG
The Liamu Complex of the Papuan Peninsula; Regional

Significance for the Tectono-thermal History and
Discovery Within the Papuan Peninsula, PNG
R. H. Findlay1 and S. Meffre2
Effective exploration in greenfields terrains requires proper sparse prior K/Ar dating, confirms a very late Miocene to
delimitation of the regional geological and geochronological Pliocene thermal event in the Papuan Peninsula, one that
architecture of the broad target district to enable efficient was involved in production of potassic intrusive bodies and
vectoring into the target. Many greenfields areas, such as monzonite intruding the Papuan Ultramafic Complex along
those in PNG and Asia, and indeed Australia, have been the length of the Papuan Peninsula.
mapped only at the broad reconnaissance scales and their Rocks similar to those in Liamu Complex are reported in
geochronological relationships are usually poorly understood. the legacy geochemical data, and geomorphological studies
The Liamu Complex, in tenements held by Goldminex combined with brief helicopter-supported visits and float
Resources Ltd in the Papuan Peninsula, provides a regionally sampling in 2011 indicate the strong probability of several
important case study of discovery by careful attention to other such late Miocene-Pliocene intrusive systems along the
systematic geological mapping, allied to geomorphology, Papuan Peninsula and within the Papuan Ultramafic Belt.
legacy geochemical data and geochronology.
These discoveries allow an integrated regional model for
The Papuan Peninsula is known for its history of very both Cu-Au porphyry/epithermal discovery in the Papuan
small-scale alluvial gold and PGE mining, and generally Peninsula and also explain the prominent development of
unsuccessful exploration by industry. The region is underlain Ni-sulphide occurrences along major fault systems cutting
by obducted latest Cretaceous-Palaeocene oceanic basalts the ultramafic rocks of the Papuan Ultramafic Belt.
and ultramafic complexes extending for 250km (Papuan
Ultramafic Belt), juxtaposed against low- to high-grade The geochronology, albeit one sample in addition to a very
metasedimentary rocks of probable Cretaceous age to few prior K/Ar ages, confirms that in late Miocene and
the south. Until recently the source of the gold in ground Pliocene times the Papuan Peninsula was host to the same
occupied by the Papuan Ultramafic Belt was most uncertain, regional, mineralising, tectono-thermal event that has hosted
despite reconnaissance geological mapping by PNG such deposits as Porgera (5.2Ma) and Tolukuma (4.6Ma),
government geologists and first-pass regional geochemical among the many others extending from the Wau-Bulolo
surveys by industry. goldfields of Morobe to Frieda River in the westernmost
part of PNG.
In 2009, reinterpretation of the 1:250 000PNG government
geological maps, allied to geomorphological observations
and legacy geochemical surveys in the Liamu River area
of the Musa Valley, highlighted incompatibilities in the
previous interpretation of the geology and led to systematic
regional and detailed geological mapping that has identified
a major 45 sq km plus intrusive and extrusive complex
(Liamu Complex) containing Cu-Au porphyry indications
and evidence for structurally controlled epithermal deposits.
This mapping has also allowed focused and therefore cost-
effective geophysical surveys that appear to show that the
complex may be as large as 75sq km.
A recent geochronological study (U/Pb zircon) has yielded
an age of 6Ma for the current drilled target in the Liamu
Complex. Apart from the lithostratigraphic importance
of this age, which demands that this part of the complex
must be tilted by around 20 degrees, it, together with
1. Montagu Minerals Mapping Pty Ltd,44 Riawena Road, Tasmania 7018. Corresponding author: rhfindlay44@gmail.com
2. CODES, University of Tasmania, Sandy Bat, Hobart, Tasmania 7018 Corresponding author: s.meffre@utas.edu.au

18 l From Exploration to Extraction mark Gabbitus
From Exploration to Extraction

mark Gabbitus1
Technology is increasingly being asked to fill the skills

shortage in mining. Geologists are being asked to do more
in less time with less training and mentoring. Therefore
it is essential that the software used during exploration,
geological modelling, resource modelling and grade control
is capable of quickly, accurately and auditably producing the
results required by the end users of the model, engineers and
miners.
New technologies such as implicit modelling reduces the
time spent by geologists building models and allows for the
rapid generation of multiple block models for a project. Used
alongside estimators of risk, such as conditional simulation,
geologists can present best case to worst case scenarios for
optimisation and scheduling that meets the growing demand
of engineers and, perhaps more importantly, investors.
Beyond feasibility studies and resource modelling it is also
important that the grade control system used at a site is
flexible, can be automated and is able to interface with the
growing level of mining information available today for
accurate reconciliation.
Software companies are responding to these needs and
this paper will detail how MineSight® has approached
this challenge both through the software and the services
provided to ensure that exploration and mining companies
can progress from the first hole drilled to the last truck
extracted in a single system. This single system approach to
geology, engineering and mining ensures that the integrity
of data is maintained throughout the mining value chain
without the need for highly skilled users.
1. Regional Business Development Manager, MineSight Applications Corresponding author: Mark.Gabbitus@minesightapps.com.au

19 l Tectonic and Structural Controls to Porphyry and Epithermal Mineralization in the Cenozoic Steve L. Garwin
Magmatic Arcs of Southeast Asia and the West Pacific
Tectonic and Structural Controls to Porphyry and

keynote
Epithermal Mineralization in the Cenozoic Magmatic Arcs

of Southeast Asia and the West Pacific
Steve L. Garwin
Introduction Miocene, Middle Miocene and the Plio-Pleistocene (Barley

et al., 2002; Garwin et al., 2005). Hydrothermal systems
Gold and copper deposits in Southeast Asia and the west were active for durations of < 100,000 years. Arc-continent
Pacific occur largely in middle to late Cenozoic (25 to 1 collisions and the subduction of buoyant aseismic ridges
Ma) magmatic arcs. The region contains
more than 160 deposits, including
porphyry, skarn, epithermal, volcanic-
associated massive sulfide, disseminated
sedimentary rock-hosted deposit and
other mineralization styles. The combined
past production and current resources of
these deposits exceeds 15,000 tonnes of
gold and 115 million tonnes of copper
(Garwin et al., 2005). The majority of the
gold and copper are contained in porphyry
and epithermal deposits, many of which
contain resources of more than five
million ounces of gold (Figure 1).
Magmatic Arcs and Tectonic

Setting
Twenty major magmatic arcs and
several less extensive arcs of Cenozoic
age form a volcano-plutonic chain that
extends >17,000 km from Japan in the
northeast, through Taiwan, Philippines,
Indonesia, Malaysian Borneo, and
Papua New Guinea, to Myanmar in Figure 1. Present-day tectonic features, major Cenozoic magmatic arcs and large porphyry and
the northwest. The arcs are constructed epithermal deposits of Southeast Asia and the west Pacific. Only deposits that contain more than
five million ounces of gold are shown. Thick red lines with triangles are subduction zones and
on basement formed from continental
thick black lines are major strike-slip faults (modified from Hall, 2002 and Garwin et al., 2005).
and oceanic crust. The geometries of Digital topography and bathymetry models are from the United States National Geophysical
individual arc segments are complex Data Center. Indicated magmatic arcs and seafloor topographic features are described partially
and typically the product of subduction, in the text of this abstract and comprehensively in Garwin et al. (2005). The locations of the
locally involving polarity reversals, magmatic arcs are modified from Hamilton (1979), Hutchison (1989), Yamada et al. (1990),
seamount subduction, obduction, arc-arc Mitchell and Leach (1991), Carlile and Mitchell (1994), and Garwin et al. (2005). Several
and arc-continent collisions, rifting, and buoyant aseismic ridges and oceanic plateaux are being, or have been, subducted beneath
transcurrent faulting. overlying arcs, including the Palau-Kyushu Ridge in southwestern Japan, the Scarborough
Seamounts in Luzon, the Ontong Java Plateau in Papua New Guinea – Solomon Islands, the
Most of the porphyry and epithermal Roo Rise near Sumbawa, and the Investigator Ridge in Sumatra. The subduction of each of these
deposits developed during episodes of seamounts has led to the development of large porphyry and epithermal deposits in the region.
plate reorganization and local variations The large deposits in medial New Guinea did not form above an active subduction zone but
in arc stress regimes during the Early within uplifted regions in a fold- and thrust-belt in a convergent setting.
1. Independent Consultant and Adjunct Research Fellow, Centre for Exploration Targeting, School of Earth and Geographical Sciences,
University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA 6009, Australia Corresponding author: sgar@iinet.net.au

vary the orientation of predominantly arc-orthogonal stress

fields and induce episodic reactivation of crustal-scale fault
Subduction Slab Topology and Seamount
systems in transpressional to transtensional settings. Collisions
The distribution of porphyry and epithermal deposits
The majority of the porphyry and epithermal deposits in
reflects differences in structural- and tectonic-setting and
the region lie above subduction slabs. However, the giant
composition of the crustal basement (Table 1; Sillitoe
deposits in medial New Guinea (e.g., Grasberg, Ok Tedi and
and Hedenquist, 2003; Garwin et al., 2005). Many of the
Porgera) lack an active subduction zone and are the product
deposits are spatially and temporally related to intrusions
of collisional tectonics in a fold- and thrust-belt.
and volcanic centers in calc-alkaline to alkaline andesitic-
dacitic arcs. Porphyry, and high- and intermediate- Major changes in the dip of the subduction slabs define
sulfidation epithermal deposits occur typically in kink zones that plunge obliquely to nearly orthogonal to
contractional to neutral arc settings and are closely related to the local strike-direction of each slab. The origin of these
shallow intrusions, volcanic centers, and, locally, diatremes. slab kinks is, in part, related to the age and density of the
Low-sulfidation epithermal systems are associated with crust that comprises the subduction slabs. Buoyant, aseismic
intra-arc and backarc grabens and extensional settings oceanic ridges (seamounts) have collided with portions of
that control bimodal basaltic-rhyolitic volcanism in Japan, the subduction zones in several localities (Figure 1). The
calc-alkaline volcanism focused near dilational jogs in the seamounts consist of inactive, sea-floor spreading centers;
Sumatra strike-slip fault system in Indonesia and K-alkaline leaky transform faults and ancient sea-floor volcanic
magmatism in Papua New Guinea. fields. These seamount collisions enhance the coupling of
Tectonic
Contraction Near-Neutral Extension
Stress-Regime
arc-arc, arc-continent collision; most common arc setting; shares Subduction slab rollback due to
buoyant seamount subduction; similarities to contractional arc, but subduction of older oceanic crust
Probable Causes fast convergence and high OCR; lacks major collisions and typically or tearing of slab adjacent to
subduction of young oceanic crust is characterized by slab rollback buoyant ridge; slow convergence
and episodes of arc-relaxation and low OCR
orogen-parallel folds, reverse faults orogen-parallel and orogen- orogen-parallel normal faults and
and thrust belts; orogen-transverse transverse strike-slip to oblique-slip grabens, intra-arc and backarc;
Deformation Style
strike-slip to oblique-slip faults faults; dilational jogs in strike-slip marginal basins
fault systems
calc-alkaline to K-alkaline andesite- calc-alkaline to K-alkaline andesite- tholeiitic to calc-alkaline bimodal
Magmatic Suite and
dacite; diminished volcanic activity dacite basalt-rhyolite; K-alkaline mafic to
Style
or volcanic gap intermediate rocks
Plio-Pleistocene Medial New Pliocene N. Sulawesi (IA) Middle Miocene NE Japan
Guinea (CM) Pliocene NE Japan (CM) (backarc, CM)
Plio-Pleistocene Luzon Central Neogene Sunda (CM to IA from Pleistocene Ryuku (CM)
Cordillera (IA) W to E, mildly contractional Pleistocene Izu-Bonin (IA)
Arc Examples
Plio-Pleistocene Southern Ryukyu between E. Java and W. Sumbawa) Pleistocene Outer Melanesian
(Taiwan, CM) Plio-Pleistocene Philippines (IA) (Tabar-Feni, IA)
Pliocene Cotobato (CM?) Early Miocene Central Kalimantan
(CM)
Au-rich Porphyry, Skarn, HS, IS Porphyry, HS, IS, (LS), DS VMS, LS
Deposit Types
Grasberg, Ok Tedi, Far South East Tujuh Bukit, Batu Hijau, Elang Kuroko deposits in
Ertsberg, Wabu and Tombulilato district Hokuroku district (tholeiitic)
Lepanto, Chinkuashih Martabe, North Lanut, Nalesbitan Hishikari (tholeiitic) and Ladolam?
Deposit Examples Porgera pit, Victoria, Acupan-Itogon Kelian, Toka Tindung, Placer (K-alkaline)
(Baguio) Lebong Donok (dilatant
jog in SFS) and Pongkor
Mesel, Bau
Table 1. Summary of tectonic regime, deformation, magmatism and mineralization in Cenozoic magmatic arcs of Southeast Asia and the west Pacific
(modified from Garwin et al., 2005)
Abbreviations: OCR - Rate of convergence orthogonal to magmatic arc; SFS - Sumatra Fault System.
Arc settings: CM, continental margin setting; IA, oceanic island arc setting.
Deposit styles: DS, disseminated sedimentary rock-hosted; HS, high-sulfidation epithermal; IS, intermediate-sulfidation epithermal; LS, low-sulfidation
epithermal; VMS, volcanic-associated massive sulfide.

the subducting slab with the overriding arc crust, which

increases the normal stress across this interface (Scholz
and Small, 1997) and promotes uplift of the overlying arc
(Garwin et al., 2005).
Examples of seamount subduction that occur near zones
of significant gold and copper mineralization in the
region include the Palau-Kyushu Ridge near Kyushu in
southern Japan (site of Hishikari, ~ 1 Ma); the Scarborough
Seamounts in northern Luzon in the Philippines (Lepanto
– Baguio, 1.5 to 0.7 Ma); the Roo Rise near eastern Java –
western Sumbawa in Indonesia (Bukit Tujuh, Batu Hijau
and Elang, ~ 4 to 2.7 Ma); and the Investigator Ridge near
northern Sumatra in Indonesia (Martabe, ~ 3 Ma). Similar
relationships between subducted seamounts and the location
of arc-transverse, intrusion-related mineral belts are observed
in the Central Andes (Sasso and Clark, 1998; Sillitoe, 1998;
Kerrich et al., 2000).
In the Southeast Asian collisional sites mentioned in the
preceding paragraph, epithermal or porphyry deposits
formed during a transition in local stress-regime that
developed as a response to seamount subduction (Garwin
et al., 2005). Northern Luzon provides one of the most
dramatic examples of the relationship between the effects
of the topology of the subduction slab on the uplift of the
overlying arc and gold-copper deposit development.
The slab beneath the Luzon arc dips steeply eastward (60
to 80°) beneath the Manila Trench, underlying two parallel
island arcs that extend between Taiwan and Luzon (Figure
2). The accretion of the extinct spreading center of the South Figure 2. Tectonic framework of the Luzon arc and elements relevant
China Sea (Scarborough Seamounts) at the Manila Trench at to the eastward subduction of the South China Sea plate (from Garwin
about 5 to 3 Ma stalled subduction, and magmatism ceased et al., 2005). The Scarborough Seamounts (SS), the extinct spreading
in the western arc (Yang et al., 1996; Bautista et al., 2001). center of the South China Sea, subducts below Luzon. A buoyant
The dip of the Luzon slab flattens to about 30° at the site of oceanic plateau, to the north of this aseismic ridge, is also inferred
collision (16-18° N), which partly underlies uplifted portions to have accreted to the base of the Luzon Central Cordillera (LCC;
of the fore-arc basin known as the Stewart Bank and Vigan Bautista et al., 2001). This accretionary process has led to the uplift of
the Stewart Bank (SB) and Vigan High (VH), which segment the fore
High (Hayes and Lewis, 1984; Pautot and Rangin, 1989).
arc to form the North Luzon Trough (NLT) and West Luzon Trough
The Baguio-Mankayan region, where Miocene coralline (WLT). The Baguio and Mankayan districts underwent extensive
limestone has been uplifted to > 1500 m above sea-level, lies uplift in the Plio-Pleistocene and lie along the subducted trace of the
near the southern margin of the subducted seamounts, above Scarborough Seamounts (Knittel et al., 1995). Two parallel island arcs
an abrupt change in slab-dip from ~ 30° to the north to > 60° extend between Luzon and Taiwan. In the Luzon Central Cordillera
to the south. The subducting slab is suggested to have torn and towards the north, volcanic activity was focused in the western arc
along the trace of the Scarborough Seamounts at about 2 (WVC) from the Miocene to middle Pliocene (~ 4-3 Ma) and migrated
Ma, which led to the upwelling of underlying asthenosphere to the eastern arc (EVC) in the late Pliocene (~ 2 Ma), which remains
through the torn slab and a migration in magmatism towards active to the present. PSF = Philippine fault system; COB = margins of
the South China Sea plate. The relative motion between the Philippine
the east (Yang et al., 1996; Bautista et al., 2001). The timing
Sea plate and Eurasia (86 km/m.y.) is from McCaffrey (1996).
of this second magmatic pulse correlates with the formation
of porphyry and epithermal deposits in the Mankayan
district (1.4 to 1.15 Ma; Hedenquist et al., 1998, 2001) and calc-alkaline Maramuni arc ceased by ~ 10 Ma. However,
the Baguio region (~1.5 Ma and 0.65 Ma; Sillitoe, 1989; the spatial and temporal correlation between large porphyry
Cooke et al., 1996). and epithermal deposits (e.g., Porgera ~ 6 Ma, Grasberg ~
In contrast to northern Luzon and other arc-trench settings, 3 Ma and Ok Tedi ~ 1 Ma) and the southward progression
the relationship of subduction to alkaline magmatism and of fold-and-thrust belt deformation (Davies, 1991) suggests
related Plio-Pleistocene mineralization in medial New that crustal thickening and block uplift played a critical
Guinea is not clear. Southerly-directed subduction beneath role in metallogenesis. Rapid convergence between New
the New Guinea Trench is too young to explain this Guinea and the Caroline plate in the Late Miocene caused
magmatic-hydrothermal event, and subduction related to the compression throughout the island and uplift of the Papuan

fold belt (Hill et al., 2002). In the Pliocene, compressional The local structural settings that promote the heat- and
stresses were reduced and transpression characterized the fluid-flow necessary to produce large porphyry and
New Guinea margin, which is inferred to have facilitated epithermal deposits in the region include: 1) dilatant
dilation about the intersections between frontal thrusts zones in long-lived fault systems; 2) structural highs,
and northeasterly-trending, orogen-transverse faults (Hill domes, anticlines or horst-blocks; and 3) the margins of
et al., 2002). These dilatant zones served as the loci for the pre- to syn-mineralization plutonic complexes, horst-block
emplacement of mantle-derived, potassium-rich magmas margins and competent blocks in zones of low mean-
and the generation of large hydrothermal systems at shallow stress. Arc-transverse belts that host thin, young volcano-
crustal levels. sedimentary cover sequences (with or without mineralized
rock fragments), volcano-sedimentary basins, porphyritic
Crustal-scale, Arc-transverse Faults and intrusions and hydrothermally altered magmatic centers
Lineaments indicate significant potential for the future discovery of large
gold and copper deposits.
Arc-transverse fault zones are inferred to control the
distribution of many of the intrusion-related deposits in References
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Corbett, G.J., and Leach, T.M., 1998, Southwest Pacific Rim gold-copper
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are inferred to extend towards the base of the crust and New Guinea Geology, Exploration and Mining Conference: Rabaul,
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24 l 3D Modelling of Geology and Gravity Data: Summary Workflows for Minerals Exploration Helen Gibson, John Sumpton,
Des FitzGerald, Ray Seikel
3D Modelling of Geology and Gravity Data:

Summary Workflows for Minerals Exploration
Helen Gibson1, John Sumpton1, Des FitzGerald1 and Ray Seikel1
Abstract Introduction
3D geology modelling coupled with innovative approaches GeoModeller is geology modelling software developed
to interpreting gravity data are combined in a suite and commercialised in Melbourne, Australia by Intrepid
of workflows available to assist minerals exploration. Geophysics in co-operation with the BRGM, France.
Challenges facing explorers - such as those relating The geophysical methods described in this paper are
to complex geology and structure, and how to achieve implemented in Intrepid software which was developed
low-cost exploration - are being met with new software and commercialised in Melbourne, Australia – solely by
tools. Predicting the continuity of mineralised zones Intrepid Geophysics.
and faults away from mapped and sampled regions can
now be rigorously constrained using GeoModeller which
offers a highly appropriate 3D interpolation method.
The model-building interpolators
Intrusions, overturned limbs, faulting, and thin & irregular The 3D interpolation method employed by GeoModeller
bodies (e.g., dykes and veins), can be modelled implicitly, is based on potential field theory (McInerney et al, 2005).
constrained by measured contacts and orientations, Uniquely it enables cokriging of two related variables
including from drill holes. (geology & fault contact points and orientation data) by
Why are we interested in potential field data as an aid to treating them as increments and derivatives of an iso-
geological resources mapping and exploration? Insufficient potential surface of a 3D scalar field (Lajaunie et al., 1997;
geology observations often exist and so hamper reliable Fig. 1A). Cokriging therefore enables geology formation-
construction of the full geological and structural story, boundary positions to be computed in 3D as curvilinear
particularly at depth. Beyond surficial and drilled geology surfaces which honour coupled dip & dip-direction data
data, model constraints can also be derived from ground (orientation data are treated as gradients of the
or airborne gravity data. Here we introduce one innovative potential field).
interpretation workflow: Multi-Scale Edge Detection Multiple geology surfaces and fault planes can be
(Hornby et. al., 1999) which can facilitate semi-automated
interpolated separately – (e.g., of host sediments, intrusives,
structural interpretation for the model zone, given certain
veins, dykes, and faults). When interpolating separately,
caveats and uncertainties (see below).
the final model construction of aggregated volumes and
Searching for mineralisation can sometimes be successfully fault surfaces honours a rule-based approach obeying the
aided by simplifying the problem to: “Where do we have relationships of the pile (i.e., onlapping or erosional) and
excess density clusters that are required by our measured also obeying the chronology of the fault network. Both of
gravity field, but cannot be explained by our best-known these rule-based inputs are important constraints of the
and modelled host geology?” In this workflow, we describe model, and are additional to the fundamental contact and
a non-deterministic geophysical inversion method which orientation data.
maintains a link to realistic 3D geology, and references
observed gravity to drive results in terms of (i) geological By this method, computation of the geological model
uncertainty and (ii) a 3D grid of most-probable variable using all constraining data is rapid, taking only seconds on
density. These inversion-outcomes may be used to again a standard PC. Rendering the model in 2D & 3D views
refine the geological model, and importantly to generate takes longer, depending on required resolution. GeoModeller
drilling targets centred on unexplained high-density models are easily updated and re-computed when new data
clusters which may be a proxy for the location of unmapped becomes available with progressive drilling, sampling and/
sulphide-hosted mineralisation. or mapping.
1. Intrepid Geophysics, Unit 110, 3 Male Street, Brighton, Victoria 3186, Australia Corresponding author: helen@intrepid-geophysics.com

Multi-Scale Edge
Detection – aiding
structural interpretation
This semi-automated method
implemented in GeoModeller
applies either to gravity or
magnetic data, and relies on
producing unbiased estimates
of sharp lateral changes in
rock properties (FitzGerald &
Milligan, 2013). The aim is to
identify depth, location and shape
of the sources reflected, say in the
gravity data. The assumption is
that the position of the maxima in
the horizontal gradient represents
the edges of the source bodies.
Such maxima can be detected
and mapped as points, and later
converted to poly-lines or “worms”
- potentially providing evidence,
for example, for continuation of
known structures or contrasting
geological units in a model zone
under construction.
The process of mapping maxima
as points can be extended to
many different levels of upward
continuation of the potential field
data. This provides points and
poly-lines that can be displayed
in three dimensions, using the
height of upward continuation as
a pseudo z-dimension. In Multi-
Scale Edge analysis a further
assumption is that lower levels of
upward continuation map near-
surface sources, while higher levels
Figure 1.
map deeper sources. Whilst generally
true, this aspect must be treated
with caution due to the non-uniqueness of potential field Non-deterministic inversion of gravity data
solutions.
Next, with our geology model closer to reality than before,
In recent years efforts to enhance the usefulness of this
mean densities can be assigned to each geology unit. But
technique for fully automated interpretation have focused
if some are unknown, a property optimization routine can
on solving the non-uniqueness issue for the estimation
of “true” depth of sources. One candidate lies in the first be run to determine optimum values. At this stage,
established Euler/Werner deconvolution technology several forward modelling runs are necessary to compute
(FitzGerald et al., 2004). This technology offers promise, the gravity response directly from 3D geology and the
but a robust technique is still under development. coupled properties data. When a fairly close match is
Nonetheless, the currently available tool can offer a achieved between the modelled and observed gravity – then
good semi-automated workflow, offering some structural preparations for a litho-constrained stochastic inversion
mapping constraints when depth-corrections are treated as are complete. [Note that property optimisation, forward
qualitative (Fig1B). modelling and inversion are all performed on a discretised

version of the smooth 3D geology model (Fig. 1C). This gravity data. Sometimes our recommended workflow
necessary step creates a 3D grid or “voxet” model, for involves sensitivity testing, using multiple inversion runs
computation purposes.] commencing from different initial models, for example, with
During inversion, as employed in GeoModeller (McInerney and without mapped gossans and their predicted depth-
et. al., 2005), each iteration makes a modification to one cell extensions into mineralized zones.
in the voxet, either in terms of geology-geometry, or the rock A project is deemed to bear results worthy of further
property (density). The revised geophysical response is re- exploration, when inversion outcomes yield cells of
computed following the small change, and assessed against anomalously high density, within a variable density voxet.
observed gravity. If the misfit is better than for the last A filtered view of the voxet, say at > 3.3 gcm-3, enables
iteration, the model is kept. If the misfit is worse, the model geo-location of high density clusters, and thus targets.
is generally (but not always) rejected. Post-inversion volumetrics and density statistics are also
This inversion method is based on a Markov Chain Monte available for what was usually a poorly constrained zone of
Carlo formulation. Hence, rather than iterations ceasing the initial model.
when misfits reach a specified low limit (a deterministic
approach), inversion employed in GeoModeller continues Summary note
to iterate, exploring millions of possible models while Numerous workflows using the software tools available in
converging to an overlap zone representing all models GeoModeller and Intrepid aim to offer powerful solutions to
supported by the available independent data sets (Fig 1D). exploration problems (Fig 1).
Retained models are within tolerance of the known geology
& properties, and these are the basis from which inversion
outcomes are reported in terms of probabilities.
References
Hornby, P., Boschetti F., and Horowitz F.G., 1999. Analysis of potential
Specific outcomes from inversion of 3D field data in the wavelet domain: Geophysical Journal International, 137,
175-196.
geology and gravity: Excess density FitzGerald, D. and Milligan P., 2013. Defining a deep fault network for
Australia, using 3D “worming”. ASEG 2013, in prep.
Performing an inversion on gravity data may have multiple FitzGerald, D., Reid, A., and McInerney, P., 2004, New discrimination
goals, but here we highlight a workflow which may be useful techniques for Euler deconvolution: Computers&Geosciences, 30,
in identifying zones of excess density. That is, zones where 461–469.
the best-known geology model still cannot explain the Lajaunie, Ch., Courrioux, G., and Manuel, L., 1997, Foliation fields and
3D cartography in geology: principles of a method based on potential
observed gravity response, and the driven inversion outcome
interpolation: Mathematical Geology, 29, 571–584.
in terms of most-probable density voxet, indicates clusters
McInerney, P., Guillen, A., Courrioux, G., Calcagno, P. and Lees, T., 2005.
of high-density cells which are interpreted to indicate Building 3D geological models directly from the data? A new approach
significant sulphide mineralisation (Fig 1E). applied to Broken Hill, Australia. Digital Mapping Techniques pp 119-
130.
In our experience this workflow is best applied in high-
resolution to prospect-scale models, and uses ground

27 l Chinese Minerals Exploration Methods and Philosophy: Implications for Out-bound Investment Matthew R. Greentree, Gavin Chan
Chinese Minerals Exploration Methods and Philosophy:

Implications for Out-bound Investment
Matthew R. Greentree1* and Gavin Chan2
Explorers in China rely on a set of prescriptive National and Gold Squads who were organised at both county and
Standards to provide guidance on all aspects of mineral provincial levels with oversight from National institutes
exploration, which cover Resource and Reserve such as the China Geological Survey. The role of these
Classification, principals of mineral exploration, technical groups was to conducted similar work programmes to that
requirements for field work, reporting and contain guidelines of geological surveys in the west. However, the role of
for individual minerals or mineral types (e.g. Liu and the geological brigade also included mineral exploration,
Zhou, 2003; Bucci et al, 2006). These guidelines leave little development of mineral Resources and mining. These
flexibility for exploration personnel to design exploration systems were still largely in place, until reforms began in
programmes that fit with local conditions, local experience, the late 1980’s and many of the state owned and operated
geology and mineralisation styles. The aim of this paper is organisations were incorporated and became more
to discuss how the Chinese National Standards (National autonomous.
Standards) originated and how they influence the way China started developing a series of National Standards
Chinese companies and State Owned Enterprises (SOE) for mineral exploration during the 1950’s based on the
approach minerals projects within China and overseas. standards used within the Soviet Union. By 1959, the
During the mid to late twentieth century, the Chinese Chinese standards were issued by the State Commission
mineral industry was tightly controlled by government of Mineral Reserves (SCMR) and again in 1983. The
policy, operating independently of commodity markets and SCMR issued standards concerning mineral Resource and
instead relying on complex system of quotas used to control Reserve classification, principals of mineral exploration
mineral production. Mineral exploration was conducted and exploration codes of individual minerals types. More
by government agencies such as the Geological Brigades recently, the standards have been issued by General
Chinese National Standards
Exploration stage Work programme Result

Typically regional reconnaissance style geological Regional geological assessment
mapping at 1:1 000,000 to 1:25,000 scale. May
Regional Mapping
include soils, stream sediment sampling and rock
chip sampling.
Target generation based geochemistry, mapping A number of defined targets or prospects
and limited drilling. Additional reconnaissance
Reconnaissance
drilling, sampling and mapping. Work conduced at
1:50,000 – 1:10,000 scale.
Sampling at scales 1:10,000 to 1:5 000. Soils Potential mineralisation assessed by “Preliminary Study”
Prospecting sampling, trenching and geophysics. Limited which covers economic, social or technical factors that
drilling and some may affect any decision to proceed
Broad spaced drilling of identified mineralisation Pre-feasibility study including metallurgical testing
General Exploration (resource at inferred level Chinese standards). carried out by mine design institutes.
Systematic drill-out (resource at indicated level Feasibility study and resource to be used for mine design
Detailed
Chinese Standards) carried out by mine design institutes and application for
Exploration
mine license
Table 1 Exploration stages as defined in the Chinese National Standards
1. SRK Consulting Australasia, 10 Richardson Street, West Perth, WA Australia 6160 Corresponding author: mgreentree@srk.com.au
2. SRK Consulting Hong Kong, Suite A1, 11/F, One Capital Place, 18 Luard Road, Hong Kong

28 l Chinese Minerals Exploration Methods and Philosophy: Implications for Out-bound Investment Matthew R. Greentree, Gavin Chan
Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and has become the largest source of investment for Resource
Quarantine and the China Geological Survey. projects worldwide. During 2011 Chinese investment
within the Australian Resource sector reached USD 7.4
The National Standards describe in detail how each phase
billion (Ferguson and Hendrischke, 2012). Increasingly,
of work is conducted. The Standards state specifications for
Chinese companies tend not to just acquire or invest
different commodity types and include specifications for
in projects with established Resources, but begin
exploration methods, sample spacing, depth of drilling, assay
actively exploring and developing greenfield Resource
schemes and cut-off grades. Exploration work outlined
projects overseas. Many of the professionals within
by the National Standards focuses on surface geochemical
these organisations will continue to apply the National
sampling methods including streams sediment, soils, rock
Standards on which they base exploration work and
chip, trenching and pitting. Although accesses to airborne
investment decisions.
geophysical methods are becoming more common, they are
not routinely used in mineral exploration in China as they The additional cost required to bring exploration
are by western geologists. programmes designed according the National Standards
to a western standard is difficult for many Chinese
The National Standards divided exploration cycle into stages
exploration companies to justify. However, exploration
which are; reconnaissance, prospecting, General Exploration
results and Resource estimates based on the National
and Detailed Exploration (Table 1). Each stage is matched
Standards are generally not accepted for the public
to a level of detail and type of work conducted. Detail
reporting on either Asian (e.g. HKEx or SGX) or
of work is linked to map scale (1:200,000; 1:50 000, 1:10
western stock exchanges (e.g. ASX, TSX, AIM). This is
000 and 1:1 000) and sampling density. At the conclusion
a significant challenge for Chinese organisations if they
of General Exploration and Detailed Exploration stages
move to IPO or attempt to gain obtain funding from
there includes recommendations for mining studies. As
outside of China. This can be overcome with a “hybrid”
most details of exploration are prescribed in the National
of Chinese and western exploration methods. With
Standards, this provides little encouragement for the
the National Standards being followed, thus fulfilling
geologist to assess the local geology and assay results
any obligations to the Chinese parent company and
systematically. This differs philosophically and practically
incorporating aspects of western exploration (sampling,
from western exploration methods (e.g. JORC). Western
QA/QC, drill spacing, continuity of mineralisation etc.)
exploration focuses on the judgement of a competent person,
that satisfy a Competent person under JORC.
familiar with the commodity or deposit style, to design
a site-specific/appropriate exploration programme, and
supervise any exploration or Resource development work. References
The National Standards have been used successfully in Bucci L., Hodkiewicz, Jankowski P., Guibal D., Song X., 2006 JORC and
the Chinese Resource Classification Scheme – an SRK view. AusIMM
many exploration programmes across China. However, the Bulletin Feature Exploration July / August pp 24 -27
prescriptive approach outlined in the National Standards
Ferguson D. and Hendrischke H., 2012 Demystifying Chinese Investment
has a number of shortcomings particularly if an exploration – Chinese Direct Investment in Australia. KPMG & University of
programme is designed to follow the National Standards Sydney China Studies Report pp 20
at the expense of decisions based on technical merit. JORC, 2012. Australasian Code for Reporting of Exploration Results,
Exclusively following these standards is likely to lead to an Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves (The JORC Code) Available
inefficient exploration programme in terms of time or cost from: http://www.jorc.org> (The Joint Ore Reserves Committee of The
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Australian Institute of
and could result in an ineffective exploration programme. Geoscientists and Minerals Council of Australia).
With changes to government policy in 2006 to encourage Liu R. and Zhou eds. 2003 Compilation of commonly used standards for
direct investment by Chinese companies overseas, China geological exploration. Sichuan Metallurgical and Geological Bureau

29 l Realising the Mineral Potential of Mongolia Graeme Hancock
keynote
Realising the Mineral Potential of Mongolia

Graeme Hancock1
The land mass of Mongolia is formed from a series of during the socialist era. Early gold exploration focused
accreted terranes sandwiched between the North Asian mainly on easily exploitable alluvial deposits, with more
Craton to the north and the Sino-Korean Craton to the recent exploration more focused on hard rock occurrences.
south. The main accretion events appear to have taken This modern gold exploration has resulted in the
place during the early to late Paleozoic and the terranes development of one significant gold deposit (Boroo Gold)
comprise both island arc sequences as well as blocks of pre- and the discovery of a number of other significant prospects.
Cambrian basement and granites. These accreted terranes Coal exploration and development has also received a lot
have subsequently been subjected to a series of intrusive of attention, particularly in the recent past with Permian
and volcanic episodes. The accreted formations are overlain bituminous coals now being exploited from a number of
by sedimentary rocks dating from periods of tropical deposits and exported into the Chinese coking coal market.
climate sedimentation creating large basins of coal bearing Huge deposits of younger lignite and sub-bituminous coals
sediments. This combination of events has resulted in a occur extensively throughout the central, north and eastern
complex and highly prospective geological environment. parts of the country providing fuel for the country’s thermal
Most of the mapping and interpretation of the geology power and heating plants.
was done by joint Russian and Mongolian geological teams In common with many developing countries Mongolia
during the period when Mongolia was a satellite State of faces a number of challenges in realising the development
the Soviet Union. During this time they identified over of this significant mineral potential. A combination of
8000 mineral occurrences covering 80 different mineral poorly developed infrastructure, a sometimes unstable
commodities as well as a significant number of mineral and legal and regulatory environment coupled with some
coal deposits. The island arc terranes are highly prospective unfriendly foreign investment rules have discouraged many
for copper, gold, uranium and a range of other metals and explorers. When combined with the issues the Mongolian
rare earth elements. The Permian aged island arcs also Government faces as a landlocked country in managing the
contain significant bituminous coal deposits. To date two geopolitical influences of its two immediate and powerful
copper deposits have been developed into producing mines neighbours (Russia and China) it all creates a unique set
(Erdenet during the socialist era and Oyu Tolgoi now of interesting challenges and opportunities for mineral
commissioning) as well as two uranium mines (Dornod exploration and development.
and Gurvanbulag) both of which were developed by Russia
1. President and Chief Representative, Mongolia, AngloAmerican Corresponding author: graeme.hancock@angloamerican.com

30 l A Framework for China’s Gold Exploration and Endowment Craig J. R. Hart, Richard J. Goldfarb
keynote
A Framework for China’s Gold Exploration

and Endowment
Craig J. R. Hart1 and Richard J. Goldfarb2
Among the most dramatic change in the global gold Shandong province that now have the capacity to produce
exploration and mining landscape during the past ten years >26t Au/year, and Zijinshan high sulphidation epithermal
is the significant development of China’s gold industry to deposit now generating 15.5t/year. A key step forwards
that of the global leader in gold production. First in gold was the development of large open pit gold mines by
production since 2008, China now produces more than 400 foreign companies. First in this effort was the discovery
t of gold/year representing 10% of global production and and development of the CSH deposit by Canadian junior
surpassing Australia (250t) and USA (230t). Importantly, explorer Jinshan Gold Mines, which was developed prior
production has been increasing at almost 12% year- to their takeover by China National Gold Corp and will
over-year which contrasts most other traditional gold expand to more than 8t of annual production by 2015.
producing countries that now lack growth. Such production Prominent also, are the efforts of Eldorado Gold Corp
advances have been made with increased investments and who, including their takeover of SinoGold in 2009 for
efficiencies in existing mines, consolidation of small mines, $2.2B, have put three gold mines into production ( Jinfeng,
the application of technologies to increase recoveries of Tanjianshan, White Mountain) that are generating ~11t
gold from low-grade and refractory ores, and greenfields of annual production. Not all involvement of foreign
and brownfields exploration and discoveries that result companies has been positive, with Southwestern Gold’s
in the development of new mines. However, China’s manipulation of resource data at the Boka gold deposit and
gold mines, of which there may be more than 1000, are failure of the government to provide development permits to
typically small in terms of both production and resources Mundoro Resources for development of their 30t Maoling
with few approaching world-class status. China’s ‘official’ deposit, as examples.
gold resource has grown to 1900t, but is likely inflated, and
represents only 3.7% of the global resource and would be China is composed of several Archean cratonic blocks that
exhausted with only five years of production. The influx of were amalgamated in the late Paleozoic to early Mesozoic
foreign explorers and miners and expertise to China peaking to form the Precambrian regions of present-day China. The
in 2004 significantly catalysed the industry such that the assembly of these blocks was associated with numerous
benefits are still prominent despite changing policies starting episodes of Phanerozoic tectonic activity that caused
in 2008 that discouraged foreign investment. The industry their margins to become deformed and modified. These
has changed 180 degrees such that Chinese cash is playing Phanerozoic orogenic belts overprint and reworked the
an increasing role to off-shore corporate ownership and margins of cratonic blocks and overlying sedimentary rocks
mineral exploration and mining development efforts. and generated magmas that formed plutonic and volcanic
China’s gold mines have traditionally been prominent in assemblages. Most of China’s orogenic, epithermal, skarn,
the eastern part of the country where high population porphyry, and Carlin-like gold deposits and resources
density has ensured that most small deposits were are in or proximal to these modified cratonic margins.
discovered and exploited by underground methods, and Accordingly, China’s major gold provinces are preferentially
these mines were important contributors to China’s located along the northern, eastern and southeastern margins
historical production. With increased political emphasis of the North China craton, along the various margins of
on development of the county’s western frontiers, new the Yangtze craton, in the Tianshan and Altaishan orogenic
discoveries have been made in regions such as Xinjiang, belts adjacent the Tarim and Junggar blocks in northwestern
Qinghai, Gansu and Tibet. However, the country’s largest China. Eastern China was subsequently influenced by
mines are those historical underground producers that Pacific subduction that generated magmas, porphyry and
have been consolidated and expanded with infrastructure epithermal systems in southeastern China, and the collision
capital that was difficult to obtain prior to 2009. Examples with India generated Himalayan orogeny that generated
of consolidated and expanded mines are those in the small orogenic and porphyry systems.
1. MDRU-Mineral Deposit Research Unit, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada Corresponding author: chart@eos.ubc.ca
2. United States Geological Survey, Box 25046, MS 973, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO, USA

31 l A Framework for China’s Gold Exploration and Endowment Craig J. R. Hart, Richard J. Goldfarb
Three-quarters of China’s gold-only (mostly orogenic) during the Jura-Cretaceous and resulted in the loss of sub-
deposits occur within uplifted blocks of Precambrian continental lithospheric mantle (the Archean-Proterozoic
metamorphic basement rocks along the margins of the keel) which further destabilized and weakened the craton
North China craton and include those in the Shandong, margins, leading to Yanshanian orogeny. This process was
West Qingling, Xiaoqingling, Daqinshan, Yan-Lioa and initiated by the subduction of three plates beneath eastern
Changbaishan gold provinces (). However, unlike many China, with subsequent fluid flow reflecting the changing
other regions of the world where important enrichments stress regimes at ca 125 Ma that is coeval with China’s
of gold mineralization are directly related to Archean largest gold event. This setting is a dramatic departure from
or Paleoproterozoic basement terranes, no important those typically accepted within orogenic gold models.
Precambrian gold systems have been recognized anywhere China continues to overemphasize their already low
in China. All of China’s gold endowment formed in resource levels. Most past gold discoveries were acquired
response to Phanerozoic events. This is a globally unique through prospecting and systematic empirically-driven
situation in which significant accumulations of Phanerozoic exploration. Future discoveries of large gold resources
gold were deposited in Precambrian rocks. The old rocks require the application of conceptual targeting and mineral
are typically not receptive to younger tectonic, magmatic deposit models, as well as improved understandings of the
or thermal events due to the rigid integrity provided by significance of regional geological setting and district-scale
their thick, cold and stiff lithosphere. The widespread ore controls, these exploration approaches have not been
distribution of orogenic gold deposits throughout eastern previously widely applied. Future resource success will
China appears to be broadly related to subduction beneath require amalgamating small underground deposits into
them, which warmed and softened their margins and larger open pits with lower grades. The influx of foreign
allowed heat, magmas and fluids to infiltrate their margins as explorers contributed new methods and strategies and
early as initial Permo-Triassic amalgamation. Lithospheric ideas to China’s gold exploration and mining landscape and
softening of the margins to the North China block, either by ultimately contributed to the production boom that China is
delamination or thermal erosion, was particularly dramatic currently enjoying.

32 l The Tombulilato Copper Gold Project in Sulawesi, Indonesia ‘Facing the Challenges Dedy Hendrawan, Gayuh ND Putranto
and Opportunities’
The Tombulilato Copper Gold Project in Sulawesi,

Indonesia ‘Facing the Challenges and Opportunities’
Dedy Hendrawan1 and Gayuh ND Putranto1
Located in Gorontalo Province, Indonesia, Tombulilato mineralization. A main compressive deformation event took
Cu-Au District is a well known district which has place in the Pliocene. Preliminary geologic reconstructions
potential Cu-Au mineralization to develop. The district suggest that these mineralization types in the Tombulilato
is also located in Au-Cu mineralization trend (Figure area were generated over about 2 M yr (between 2.9 and
1). International Minerals Corp (IMC), a subsidiary of 0.9 Ma) as part of a district-scale hydrothermal system.
PT Bumi Resources Tbk that took over share ownership Continuous syn-mineralization uplift and erosion, which
from BHP in 2005, began an exploration and drilling are interpreted to have removed some 2 km of rock in the
program in the south part of the District area in 2006. PT. last 3 M yrs, were responsible for the progressive un-roofing
Gorontalo Minerals (GM) owned 80% by the IMC and of the hydrothermal system and the superposition of
20% by PT. Aneka Tambang (ANTAM) had continued epithermal environments over relics of higher temperature,
exploration program since 2011 and commenced an
deeper-seated mineralization. In the near-surface
extensive drilling program in Sungai Mak and Cabang Kiri
environment, intense uplift accompanied formation of a
in September 2011.
chalcocite blanket at Sungai Mak.
The geology of the Tombulilato district, North Sulawesi
(Perello, 1993), is characterized by an island arc-type The structure of the Tombulilato District is characterized
volcano-sedimentary pile, > 3400 m thick and of late by northerly striking high-angle faults, normally a few
Miocene (?)–Pleistocene age, which is made up of meters wide and containing tectonic breccias, high-to-
submarine to subaerial basic to acid volcanic rocks moderate angle normal faults showing an easterly trend
interbedded with, marine and continental sedimentary and of post-mineralization origin, and common low-angle
rocks. The sequence is intruded by high-level stocks and thrust faults, typically accommodated by ductile sedimentary
dikes, and cut by diatreme breccias of late Pliocene and intercalations in the Bilungala Volcanics and showing a
Pleistocene age, some of which are associated intimately random orientation. All intrusive bodies postdate folding
with porphyry Cu–Au and epithermal Cu–Au–Ag and thrusting (Leeuwen and Pieters, 2011).
Figure 1. Tombulilato District and prospect locations
1. PT Gorontalo Minerals, Gedung Leppin Jln Sawah Besar 300, Bone Bolango, Gorontalo, Indonesia Corresponding author: dedy.hendrawan@brm.co.id

33 l The Tombulilato Copper Gold Project in Sulawesi, Indonesia ‘Facing the Challenges Dedy Hendrawan, Gayuh ND Putranto
and Opportunities’
Three main mineralization types are present in the district: 1. Hypogene Cu-Au is 72.2mt @ 0.31% Cu and 0.17gr/t
porphyry Cu–Au; 2. high-sulfidation epithermal Au-Cu-Ag; Au and 3. Sungai Mak Oxide Au is 11.5mt @ 0.51gr/t Au.
and 3. low-sulfidation epithermal Au–Ag. Porphyry Cu– Most of resource was fall in measured-classification. Mineral
Au mineralization is present at Cabang Kiri (East, North, resource of Cabang Kiri is 124mt @ 0.43% Cu and 0.67gr/t
Southwest and South), Sungai Mak, Kayubulan Ridge, and Au. In order to support and accelerate the completion of FS
Cabang Kanan. High Sulphidation epithermal Au-Cu-Ag is and AMDAL, before 2011 and during the resource drilling
present in Motomboto (North, East and West), Mohutango period in 2011-2012, GM had also completed numbers
and Ridho. Low Sulphidation Au-Ag is present in of test and studies including metallurgy, geotechnical,
Kaidundu, Mamungaa, Pombolo, Hulapa, Ombulo, Hupito, geohydrology, hydrology, baseline study, health study, social
Moota, Waluhu, and Bilolatunga (Figure 1). impact study, flora/fauna study, marine biota study, etc.
In the Bumi Resources era in between 2006 and 2010, GM Significant reduction in numbers of people working in
conducted minor scale but systematical exploration program local artisanal gold mining Au activity in Motomboto from
in the south part of Block 1, especially in Kaidundu prospect 5000-7000 people in 2011 to approximately 700 people in
and its surroundings. Started in mid 2011, GM started End of 2012 has opened access and opportunity to conduct
running extensive drilling program targeting to bring the exploration program in the area. BHP reported in 1997 that
project into production in 2016-2017. This is a challenging Tulabolo prospect or what we currently call Motomboto
task. Challenges includes legal and permitting, compiling North has high grade Au-Ag-Cu at 3.5mt @ 4.8gr/t Au,
old analog data, building new team, building new system 94.3 ppm Ag, 1.67% Cu (BHP and ANTAM, 1992).
and infrastructures, building good relationship with stake Because of these reasons, GM plans to conduct exploration
holders, facing public perception, working in remote and and resource drilling program over Motomboto North and
rugged terrain, working together with local miners, financing Motomboto East in 2013. Motomboto complex has numbers
the project, maximizing local contractors, implementing of clusters located along WNW structures associated with
and monitoring HSE aspects, etc. Exploration strategy and a multiphase of hydrothermal breccias complex. Main
timing is also critical in developing this project to achieve mineralization occurs in sulphides-cemented breccia and
and fulfill the target and expectation of the government vuggy silica, both as oxide and sulphide Au-Cu-Ag. Oxide
in line with the exploration stage in the Contract of Work Au near the surface at Motomboto North is the first priority
stage period after long inactive period of exploration. In to complete followed by higher tonnage and higher grade of
the other hand, developing, implementing and maintaining Au-Ag in Main Motomboto East. New resources from both
Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) are very important prospects are expected to get in end of year 2013.
to conduct in all aspect of activities. Current JORC resource from Sungai Mak and Cabang
SRK Consulting as a main consultant, LAPI ITB, Kiri reported in 2012, new resource from Motomboto area
Simulus and Io Global are some of reputable consultants expected to get in 2013, potential additional expansion
that have been involved with GM from the beginning of from these three prospects and other resources from known
recommencement of exploration in 2011. Reputable national prospects including Kayu Bulan, Cabang Kiri North,
universities (ITB, UNHAS, UNSRAT, UNTAD, UNG, Cabang Kanan, and numbers of clusters in Motomboto
UG, IPB and UI) and international institution (ANU) and Kaidundu-Pombolo are very possible that Tombulilato
had been involved conducting numbers of baseline studies District will prove to be a world class Copper-Gold District.
to support the Feasibility study (FS) and Environmental Regional exploration program during 2011-2012 assisted
Impact Study (AMDAL). Other consultants are Paradigm by effective target selection from data collection, data
Management Consulting (PMC) and Ernst and Young who compilation and data processing of geophysics data (airborne
assisted GM in developing Integrated Management System and IP) and geochemistry data had also successfully located
and QHSE Management System. new large Cu-Au anomalies (Poga, Ridho, Kayu Bulan
Expansive drilling program over Sungai Mak and Cabang Barat, and other cluster at South).
Kiri was conducted during 2011-2012, totaling 15197.95m PT. Gorontalo Minerals has successfully overcome the
in Sungai Mak and 5983.05m Cabang Kiri. The drilling challenge to get high level confidence of mineral resource
program included twin holes, resource holes metallurgy and increase more tonnage and grade in the past 1-2 year
holes, and geotechnical holes. Current JORC minerals exploration program. The company is now moving to
resource of Sungai Mak and Cabang Kiri using 0.2% Cu complete detail Feasibility Study of Motomboto North,
cut-off grade was reported by competent person of SRK Motomboto East and Sungai Mak in 2013 followed by
in July 2012. Sungai Mak resource are divided into 3 Environmental Impact Study (AMDAL) in 2014 and
mineralization domains: 1. Sungai Mak Supergene Cu-Au construction stage in 2015-2016.
is 84.3mt @ 0.84% Cu and 0.42gr/t Au, 2. Sungai Mak

34 l Geophysics of the Elang Cu-Au Porphyry Deposit, Indonesia, and Comparison with Other Cu-Au T. Hoschke, S. Schmeider, S. Kepli
Porphyry Systems
Geophysics of the Elang Cu-Au Porphyry Deposit,

Indonesia, and Comparison with Other Cu-Au Porphyry
Systems
T. Hoschke1, S. Schmeider2 and S. Kepli2
Introduction
The Elang porphyry Cu-Au deposit is located in south
western Sumbawa in Indonesia approximately 60 km due
east of the Batu Hijau porphyry Cu-Au mine (Figure 1). It is
a large deposit with a total resource estimate (as at June 2010)
of 2425 Mt at 0.33 g/t Au and 0.31 g/t Cu (Ball, 2011).
A regional stream sediment sampling and mapping program
in 1987 and 1988 led to the discovery of epithermal veins
in the Elang area. Gold mineralisation was intersected in
drill holes, but not enough to be of interest and exploration
ceased until after the discovery of Batu Hijau in 1991. The
area was then reassessed for porphyry Cu potential and a Figure 1. Location of Elang on SW Sumbawa
large low grade resource was discovered, however this was
not considered economic at the time. Another phase of
exploration began in 2002 and significantly added to the In the 1993 survey Elang shows up as a discrete magnetic
resource to the south under a lithocap up to 200 m thick. high of about 700 nT within a magnetically quiet area. The
The deposit is associated with a series of tonalite porphyry better resolution of the ground magnetic survey and the
intrusions that are hosted by andesitic volcanics (Maula 2012 airborne survey shows two discrete highs (Figure 2c).
& Levet, 1996). The geology and alteration are shown in The magnetic highs are due to magnetite associated with
Figures 2a and 2b, respectively. Mineralisation is associated the potassic alteration zone of the mineralised tonalite
with potassic alteration (chlorite-magnetite±biotite) porphyries. This contrasts with a broader zone of magnetite
which grades outward to propylitic alteration. This system destructive clay alteration. The low between the two
is overprinted by intermediate argillic alteration and an magnetic bodies is probably due to a less magnetic late
advanced argillic lithocap, up to 200 m thick, covers much of tonalite intrusion (the Echo Tonalite).The larger southern
the deposit. body lies under the lithocap at a depth of up to 200m
The Elang area was covered by an airborne magnetic survey depending on topography.
in 1993 and with ground magnetics and Gradient array The magnetic data were inverted in 3D and the potassic
IP/resistivity surveys at about the same time. Pole-dipole zone, as determined by drilling, correspond well to the zones
IP/resistivity surveys were conducted from 2003 to 2005, of high magnetic susceptibility in the inversion model.
HoisTEM and NewTEM were flown in 2004 and an Magnetic susceptibility measurements on drill core confirm
airborne magnetic and radiometric survey in 2012. that the mineralised potassic zone is moderately to highly
magnetic.
Magnetic Response
A helicopter magnetic and radiometric survey flown by
Electrical Response
Newmont in 1993 covered a large part of SW Sumbawa, IP surveys
including the Batu Hijau and Elang areas. The survey was
flown in an east west direction with 200 m spacing between Gradient array IP/resistivity surveys were conducted over
flight lines. A more recent survey was completed in 2012 Elang with a line spacing of 200 m and an electrode spacing
with 100m spaced north south lines. of 50 m. There are strong chargeabilities associated with the
1. Consulting Geophysicist, Perth, WA Corresponding author: terry.hoschke@gmail.com

2. PT Newmont Nusa Tenggara

35 l Geophysics of the Elang Cu-Au Porphyry Deposit, Indonesia, and Comparison with Other Cu-Au T. Hoschke, S. Schmeider, S. Kepli
Porphyry Systems
Elang alteration system and a corresponding resistivity low. chargeabilities both in the ore zone and the pyrite halo.
The lithocap was not detected in this survey. There is a broad resistive low due to clay alteration and
sulphide veining which is not uncommon in porphyry
Pole-dipole IP surveys conducted between 2003 and 2005
covered the deposit and surrounding alteration system. The systems.
line spacing was 100 m or 200 m with a potential electrode
spacing of 50 m reading to N=10. A 3D inversion was References
applied to the lines covering Elang. Ball, R., 2011. Newmont Mining Corporation Presentation, CIBC Annual
Instutional Investor Conference, Whistler, B.C.
Very strong chargeabilities are associated with the porphyry
alteration (Figure 2d). The limit of disseminated pyrite Lowell, J. D. and Guilbert, J.M., 1970. Lateral and vertical alteration-
mineralization zoning in porphyry ore deposits, Economic Geology 65:
(sulphide shells of Lowell and Guilbert, 1970) is well
373-408.
defined, and drilling confirms a strong chargeability high on
Maula, S. and Levet, B.K., 1996. Porphyry Copper-Gold Signatures
the eastern side of the survey is due to the pyrite shell of the
and the Discovery of the Batu Hijau Deposit, Sumbawa, Indonesia,
porphyry system. A chargeability low immediately to the in Australian Mineral Foundation, eds., Conference on Porphyry
east of the deposit relates to a late dacite intrusion. Some of Related Copper and Gold Deposits of the Asia Pacific Region: Cairns,
the more subtle lows may be due to late intrusive phases that Australasian, August 12-13, 1996, Proceeding, p.8.1-8.13.
are less mineralised.
The resistivity data clearly show the extent
of the alteration system (~3km x 2km) with
the porphyry alteration being relatively
conductive at 10s of ohm-meters in a
background of fresh volcanics in the 100s of
ohm-meters. The highly resistive lithocap of
1000s of ohm-meters is well defined and the
conductive zones are due to clay alteration
and/or sulphide veining. Chalcopyrite
veining in the potassic zone appears to be
extensive and is probably a good conductor.
This zone is generally too deep to be seen
with the pole-dipole resistivity.
Airborne Electromagnetics
HoisTEM and NewTEM surveys were
flown over Elang in 2004 and show
similar results.
The Elang alteration system clearly shows
up as a NE trending conductive zone in
relatively resistive volcanics. The leached
cap is highly resistive and is clearly
identified by the HoisTEM. There are
other conductors in the area that may
represent alteration zones and there is
a conductive sedimentary unit on the
western side of the area.
Conclusion
Elang is typical of a number of Cu-Au
porphyry systems in that magnetite
is associated with mineralisation and
produces a strong discrete magnetic
anomaly. It has a larger potassic zone
than most systems, which may be due Figure 2. Plans showing the geological and geophysical character of the Elang deposit. (a) Elang
to more than one porphyry centre. The geology from mapping and projected from drilling. (b) Alteration.(c) Airborne magnetics – RTP
Elang system is more pyrite rich than (2012 survey). (d) Chargeability surface 200m below topography (from 2002-2004 surveys). The
many porphyries, leading to very strong 0.3% Cu shell as defined by drilling is outlined in blue.

36 l Controls on high-grade Au ore-shoots: Towards a New Paradigm J. M. A. Hronsky
Controls on High-grade Au Ore-shoots:

Towards a New Paradigm
J. M. A. Hronsky1
Recent industry challenges associated with the development cyclic events. They represent zones of localized intense
of large, low-grade deposits have once again highlighted fracturing and extreme crustal permeability. They are
the critical role of grade in profitable gold mining. For sourced from an overpressured reservoir zone at depth and
this reason and also because much gold exploration is are formed when a fluid pressure pulse breaks its way to the
increasingly focused at depth in known camps, it seems surface, taking the easiest path. This path of least resistance
clear that a robust process understanding of controls on may involve the reactivation of existing structures but in
the irregular distribution of high-grade ore-shoots within a many cases results in the formation of pipe-like fracture
deposit should be an industry priority. zones in previously intact rock. Stress changes associated
Interestingly, the current structural targeting paradigm with these fluid pulses are large and overwhelm the effect
relating to this topic is seldom explicitly articulated, let alone of the ambient stress field. This is the primary reason for
challenged. Despite this, it has a strong influence on current the predictive failure of the existing paradigm as ore-shoots
approaches to near-mine targeting. This paradigm recognises are constrained to be restricted to these fluid-exit conduit
(correctly) that well-mineralised rock volumes represent sites volumes, which will have geometries not predictable by
of anomalous ore-fluid flux. However it implicitly assumes traditional structural analysis.
these anomalous volumes represent localised more dilatant/ An important implication of this new perspective is that
permeable rock volumes embedded within a surrounding, fluid conduits may be much more vertically-extensive
larger-scale, less focused fluid flow system and that they features than the pre-existing structures which host them.
are generated by dynamic syn-ore deformation (eg Ridley, A single fluid conduit may move between host structures
1993). Based on the above assumptions, it is assumed that as it propagates upward, depending on which pathway
knowledge of deposit structural geometry and inferred provides the path of least resistance. This may result in
syn-ore stress field can be used to predict the kinematics of them following quite torturous paths from source to sink,
these structures and hence anomalous dilational sites. This including right-angled bends in three dimensions.
framework also implies that localised mineralised volumes
The key control on conduit localisation (and hence ultimately
hosted by structures such as faults and shear zones are
ore-shoot location) is the rheological structure of rock mass
intrinsically a property of these structures.
above the source reservoir – what is the easiest path upward
The primary problem with this existing paradigm is that for the fluid pulse? In this context, ore-hosting fault and
although individual examples of a close association between shear zones are effectively just another rock type. Usefully,
mineralisation and inferred dilatant geometries can be from a predictive perspective, it is clear that some geometric
demonstrated, this is not a consistent predictive relationship patterns of rock rheological distribution are consistently
and the concept fails in many deposits (eg Lancefield more favourable. One of the most notable of these is where a
gold deposit, Hronsky, 1993; Cracow gold Deposit, steeply-oriented pipe-like volume of more brittle rock occurs
Mickelthwaite, 2009). within a weaker wallrock sequence. In this situation, the
It is proposed here that the solution to this problem is brittle pipe behaves like a “lightning rod” and commonly is
provided by fundamentally changing our perspective on the preferentially used by the propagating fluid pulse.
physical relationship between ore-shoots and the fluid flow Ore-fluid conduits can be divided into two types, with
systems that host them. Hronsky (2011) proposed that most important implications for near mine targeting. Type
ore deposits can be considered as forming in transient fluid- 1 conduits occur as pipe-like stockwork bodies, and
exit conduits, associated with the episodic rupture of over- are typically associated with large, coherent bodies of
pressured reservoirs at depth. mineralisation of relatively uniform but generally low, grade.
Fluid Exit Conduits are rock volumes that have been Porphyry-related stockwork deposits are a good example of
conduits for large amounts of fluid flux, usually over multiple Type 1 conduits but they also occur in other ore styles. Type
1. Western Mining Services and Centre for Exploration Targeting Corresponding author: Jon.hronsky@wesminllc.com

2 conduits form complex, linked,

vein arrays, which host local,
smaller, discontinuous lenses of
mineralisation (“ore-shoots”).
In this conduit type, individual
ore-shoots can be much higher-
grade than background parts
of the host vein system. Most
Low-sulphidation Epithermal
and Orogenic Gold deposits are
hosted by Type 2 conduits.
Type 1 conduits are associated
with the failure of previously
intact rock whereas Type 2
conduits are associated with shear
failure of pre-existing planes of Figure 1: An example of application of the hierarchical framework of ore-shoot controls proposed in this
model– Mararoa Reef at Norseman. (Diagram modified after Campbell, 1990)
weakness. In the case of Type
2 conduits, ore-deposition is
heterogeneous along the conduit
zone, related to locally enhanced dilation and associated this reason, exploration must focus on the conduit system,
pressure drop. This occurs because of the affect of the shear rather than the immediate local host structure. For example,
component on local structural heterogeneities along the host in a system dominated by near-surface, flat-dipping ore-
structure (ie local “dilational jogs”). Importantly, these local hosting structures, there must somewhere be more steeply
dilational volumes are not sites of greater fluid flux than oriented feeder conduits that bring in fluid flow from depth
adjacent segments of their host conduit – instead they are and these should be a near-mine exploration target.
simply volumes of greater mineral (commonly dominantly Type 2 (ie Shear zone-associated) conduits will host local
quartz) precipitation. These local heterogeneities represent a zones of dilatancy and hence are more likely to host local
lower-order scale of control on ore deposition that is absent higher-grade shoots. In contrast, Type 1 conduits (eg
from Type 1 conduit systems stockwork zones) will not host local zones of anomalous
From a process perspective, the critical difference between dilatancy (at a relevant scale) and therefore will always be
Type 1 and Type 2 conduit systems is whether fluid-driven more uniform in grade, forming pipe-like ore volumes.
failure is purely extensional (Type 1) or has a shear- Importantly for exploration, a Type 2 conduit that hosts
component (Type 2). It is proposed (following Cox, 2010) one localised high-grade ore-shoot volume is very likely
that these different states of fluid-pulse propagation depend to host others. However, these may be separated by barren
on the ratio of lv (pore-fluid pressure factor) to differential segments of the host conduit zone. When targeting these
stress (s1-s3), and that this, in turn, relates to factors such deeper extensions in Type 2 conduit systems, it is important
as paleodepth, fluid pressure (bigger systems more likely to separate out conduit-scale from localised ore-shoot-scale
to manifest as Type 1 conduits) and distance from parental plunge controls; exploration should focus down the plunge
intrusion. trend of the conduit not the localised ore-shoot.
There are a number of important practical implications of The key geological element for targeting in the near-mine
this revised perspective on hydrothermal ore emplacement. environment is localised rheological heterogeneity (in 3D)
Because all deposits need to form as part of a fluid conduit because this is what overwhelming controls fluid conduit
system that connects an underlying fluid reservoir with emplacement. Therefore near-mine geology must always be
a near-surface sink zone, exploration needs to focus on characterised with reference to rheology (note that in this
tracing the fluid conduit system (through barren segments) context, pre-existing shear zones are really just a special type
downward beneath known ore-shoots and prioritising these of weak rock).
volumes for further follow-up exploration. Developing It is important to establish the geological process which
techniques for recognising such barren linking segments defines the base of an ore-shoot – this will determine follow
is therefore an important objective. For example, relatively up exploration strategies. For example, if the base of the ore-
subtle alteration in the plane of the lode may be much more shoot is related to the termination of a local dilational zone,
important than stronger alteration elsewhere. the exploration implications are very different from the case
Because the expected vertical extent of the fluid conduit where the termination is related to the fundamental base of
system is commonly much greater than individual host the zone of ore deposition.
structures, we predict conduits will use multiple structures at Ore-shoots can be hosted by all pre-existing structures not
different vertical levels as they propagate to the surface. For just the latest “syn-ore” ones; therefore the age of the host

structure is not necessarily the age of mineralisation (as has Hronsky J.M.A., 1993. The role of physical and chemical processes in
commonly been assumed in the past). the formation of gold ore shoots at the Lancefield deposit, Western
Australia. PhD Thesis (unpubl.), University of Western Australia. 205p.
In summary, in the 21st Century, rather than the more Hronsky J.M.A., 2011. Self-organized critical systems and ore formation:
traditional “structure-centric” conceptual approach, a “fluid- The key to spatial targeting? Society of Economic Geology Newsletter,
centric” alternative is advocated for near-mine targeting. This Vol. 84, 14-16.
approach has very important practical implications and has Micklethwaite S., 2009. Mechanisms of faulting and permeability
the potential to contribute to the more efficient discovery of enhancement during epithermal mineralisation: Cracow goldfield,
Australia. Journal of Structural Geology 31, 288-300
high-grade gold ore shoots.
Ridley J., 1993. The relations between mean rock stress and fluid flow in the
References: crust: With reference to vein- and lode-style gold deposits. Ore Geology
Reviews 8, 23-37
Campbell J.D., 1990. Hidden gold – The Central Norseman story.
AusIMM Monograph 16
Cox S.F., 2010. The application of failure mode diagrams for exploring
the roles of fluid pressure and stress states in controlling styles of
fracture-controlled permeability enhancement in faults and shear zones.
Geofluids 10, 217-233

39 l Ramping-up Exploration Value from Aeromagnetic Surveys – More Geological Input Needed! David Isles
keynote
Ramping-up Exploration Value from Aeromagnetic

Surveys – More Geological Input Needed!
David Isles
Aeromagnetic data can add a vast amount of geological sampling and the very frequent continuity of ‘magnetic
information to a project area. The process of integrating rock units’, also provides the interpreter with a geometric
aeromagnetics with geology, satellite imagery and framework on which structural interpretation can be based.
radiometrics to produce ‘working project maps’ is We ‘know all of this’ but often find the task of integrating
straightforward: it is really an extension of the geological a high quality set of aeromagnetic imagery and the best
mapping process and the tasks involved closely parallel available geological information daunting. Where do we
those used in conventional geological mapping. However, start?
we frequently encounter high quality aeromagnetic data
sets that are very poorly integrated with geology and other The Integration Process – Layers
project data. This is partly due to inexperience in working
with the aeromagnetics, partly due to inadequate allocation In exactly the same way that geological mapping begins,
of (geologist’s) time to the integration task and partly aeromagnetic interpretation starts with a quite basic
due to a pre-occupation with quantitative geophysical set of factual observations. We observe and record the
interpretation tools. locations, shapes and sizes of magnetic rock units and
we record pattern discontinuities and trends in much
High quality acquisition and detailed survey specifications the same way as is done for aerial photography. We
are the norm in the airborne magnetic industry, and a range produce a ‘factual’ observation layer that can then be
of very good options is readily available for filtering and directly compared to available geological information,
image enhancement. Most surveys flown yield excellent and be it factual or interpretive. This leads to a period of
appropriate imagery for interpretation, and the re-use of ‘old’ integration which very often involves resolving conflicts
(post 1970s) survey data is also made easy by robust software between the geophysical and geological data. ‘Successful’
for stitching and merging new and old surveys. Our ability integration is usually a slow and painstaking process. It
to gather, process and present data is very well developed, requires the best possible local geological input and an
but our tendency is to lose momentum after the ‘pretty understanding of the way aeromagnetic ‘signal’ relates to
pictures’ have been produced. While there are strategies the magnetic mineral distribution in the subsurface. It
for optimising the data processing and presentation stage does not require sophisticated software, or indeed any
to give interpreters the most appropriate imagery in the software, if the interpreter so chooses. The outcome of the
shortest possible time-frame, these do not cause substantial integration process is a ‘solid geology layer’ that depicts
improvements to the final, integrated interpretation. ‘what rocks are where’ and identifies the main fault and
The key ingredients that lead to high quality, high value fracture patterns. This benefits from further geological
interpretation are geological thinking and time. interrogation, to consider such things as deformation styles,
Aeromagnetic images depict the (3-D) distribution of timing relationships and alteration, metamorphism or
magnetic minerals in the Earth’s crust. Almost all rock mineralisation events.
types contain sufficient magnetic mineral to be ‘seen’ in a Our third layer in the process is then an integrated,
modern aeromagnetic survey (concentrations of 0.001% interpretive solid geology. There are many possible
magnetic mineral are usually readily detectable). The extensions and embellishments of this interpretive product
magnetic ‘signature’ of a rock unit will be influenced not only including 2-D and 3-D magnetic modelling, production
by its original composition and environment of formation, of geological cross sections and integrated 3-D or even
but also (and often predominantly) by subsequent events 4-D geological models. None of these can be effectively
like diagenesis, metamorphism, alteration and weathering. done before the basic, qualitative process of integrating the
Astute interpretation can ‘read’ some or all of these processes aeromagnetic imagery and the geology has been solidly
from aeromagnetic imagery. The uniformity of survey preformed. There no shortcuts!
1. Southern Geoscience Consultants, Belmont, WA Corresponding author: david.isles@sgc.com.au

Golden Dyke Study Area extraordinary intensities and may not appear ‘anomalous’
in the geophysical sense, but when integrated with the
The Golden Dyke example illustrates this integration geology they are very clearly ‘geologically anomalous’.
process in a situation where outcrop is very good, expression - There are two ‘alteration zones’ definable from their
of geological features in aerial photography is very good and magnetic character.
the area has been well mapped by experienced geologists.
The integration of a small amount of aeromagnetic data 1. The ‘fuzzy’ magnetic zone in the SW part of the
(200m line spacing amounting to less than 400 line km Golden Dyke Dome has a central coherent magnetic
over a study area of 7km x 10km) in this low grade meta- low, and looks like a ‘doughnut’. Visual inspection
sedimentary environment would not be expected to add of the aeromagnetic images and consideration of the
much to the geological picture- but it does! geological context allows us to propose the nature
Figure 1 shows the mapped geology

and one of the main images used in
the observation and interpretation
process. In this study, a set of five
key images provided all of the
necessary aeromagnetic information.
The observation layer is seen as a
somewhat messy collection of lines,
polygons, measurements and notes.
It is very similar to a geologist’s field
notes and is indeed the record of
our ‘field trip’ to the aeromagnetic
imagery. The observation layer
is the fundamental initial step in
assembling a high quality, high value
interpretation. Without this step we
run the risk of overlooking much of
the subtle information that is often
crucial to understanding geological
and mineralising processes.
The integrated interpretation
incorporates an assessment of
the regional context, both from
published geological studies and the
expanded aeromagnetic coverage. It
looks, at first glance, very similar to
the geology map. We expect this
because the geology is well exposed
and well mapped. On closer
inspection we find a range of quite
important additions sourced from
the aeromagnetics.
- the recognition of magnetic
stratigraphic marker horizons in
three of the sedimentary units
greatly expands our view of the
folding and faulting. The clearer
and more detailed structural
picture is invaluable in the
assessment of the area for gold
potential.
Figure 1. Geology, aeromagnetic image, aeromagnetic observations and integrated interpretation over
- localised magnetic units in key the Golden Dyke area, Pine Creek Inlier, NT. The area is 7km x 10km. Geology from the published
structural and stratigraphic ‘Batchelor-Hayes Creek’ 1:100,000 scale map, aeromagnetics from the GADDS portal (both sourced from
locations constitute exploration Geoscience Australia) and all images from Isles & Rankin, ‘ Geological Interpretation of Aeromagnetic
targets. These do not have Data’ (in press).

of the magnetic mineral distribution and the likely - The Mt Leyshon gold district is ‘a dog’s breakfast’
(alteration) mechanism that caused it. We do not both geologically and in the aeromagnetic imagery.
need modelling or inversion to do this. Integration of the two data sets is a daunting task and
2. The quite subtle zone of decreased magnetic intensity one that does not lead to a clear ‘answer’. However, the
NW of the Golden Dyke Dome (around the Sandy increased clarity of structure and intrusive ‘zonation’
Creek alluvial workings) is not an outstanding advances the targeting process significantly.
feature of the image in figure 1, nor in most of the - The Bau gold district in Sarawak (East Malaysia) shows
other images used for the interpretation, but it is a number of intriguing aeromagnetic features that have
consistently identifiable and when considered in its not, as yet, been well explained in the context of the
geological (especially structural) context it is likely to known geology. Their possible importance in targeting is
be a zone of ‘magnetic mineral destruction’. conjectural, but addressing the task of integration is very
The new features added from our integration of the likely to be a valuable step forward in understanding the
aeromagnetics sharpen our focus at the exploration targeting local geology.
stage. The localised magnetic (geological) anomalies and
the alteration zones discussed above are direct and ‘obvious’ Concluding Remarks
target zones, but of equal importance is the refinement Significant value is added to an exploration project by
of the structural picture, allowing us to apply structural the integration of aeromagnetics with geology (and other
models to the targeting process. If we consider targeting key data). The integration process is straightforward and
based solely on the (very good quality) geological mapping, qualitative but it requires good geological reasoning and,
the value of the (very small amount of ) aeromagnetic data most importantly, adequate allocation of geologist’s time.
becomes clear. The cost of the geologist’s time is small compared to the cost
of aeromagnetic data acquisition. The value added to the
Mt Leyshon and Bau Districts project by the clearer focus in exploration targeting is the
Two further examples illustrate the stages of observation and reward for allocation of this time.
integration in different geological environments.

42 l Cu-Au Porphyry System of Atlantis Prospect, Papua Province: A Preliminary Report Hashari Kamaruddin, Hartono, Ciputra.
Cu-Au Porphyry System of Atlantis Prospect,

Papua Province: A Preliminary Report
Hashari Kamaruddin, Hartono, Ciputra.
Atlantis exploration project is located in the Star Mountains in 2008 and literature review and Landsat imagery
Range, at the border of Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, study. Indicators of mineralisation were interpreted from
in the Papua Province of Indonesia. Mountain Star is the morphotectonic impression by using SRTM, Landsat
southern flank of the Central Mountain Range along the and Aster data that allowed the prediction of dilation and
prospective Papuan Arc Belt. elliptical stocks. Follow-up work included (1) compass
Tectonically, Papua is situated within the Pacific “Rim mapping along streams, (2) creek and ridge traverses
of Fire”. Geological investigation recorded in Mountain documenting with the colour codes “Anaconda” mapping
Star was begun by the Dutch agency in 1938 with a gold method (3) ridge and spur soil sampling program and (4)
exploration program then followed by two yearly programs ground geophysics acquisition data.
in 1959 and 1961. More systematic exploration was The Atlantis Project is situated in the “blank spot interval”
conducted in 1970-1971 by PT. Kenneccot Indonesia with between two remarkable deposits of Grasberg and Ok Tedi,
a regional exploration survey. In 1989, PT Ingold Antares in the hihgly prospective mineralisation belt of Papuan Arc.
acquired the concession in the region, covering some of the The exploration activities effectively started in the end of
Kenneccot survey area. Antam took the tennement in 2008 2010 but, unfortunately, had to postpone in the middle of
after PT Ingols Antares return it to the government. 2012 waiting for forestry permits. The permits are expected
The Atlantis project commenced with a due diligence to be cleared-up in the middle of 2013.
program on some of previously Ingold CHECK concessions
1. PT Aneka Tambang (persero), Tbk; Unit Geomin, Jl. Pemuda No. 1, Jakarta Timur Corresponding author: hashari.kamaruddin@antam.com

43 l Formation of Advanced Argillic Zones Imants Kavalieris, Khashgerel Bat-Erdene
poster
Formation of Advanced Argillic Zones

Imants Kavalieris and Khashgerel Bat-Erdene
Advanced argillic (AA) alteration forms large tabular zones

(or lithocaps), commonly up to several km in strike length
and >500 m in thickness. Lithocaps are formed from acid
sulfate fluids that may have several origins, including,
1) magmatic-hydrothermal, related to condensation of
ascending magmatic volatiles, and 2) steam-heated hot
spring alteration, from which acid fluids can descend to
deep levels. Similar alteration assemblages, including sulfides
can form in both environments, as shown from geothermal
studies. Especially in older terrains, poorly exposed and
eroded lithocaps are difficult to classify. The main alteration
mapping guides to the origin of lithocaps are 1) vertical
alteration zonation (mineralogy and texture), 2) nature
of the top of the alteration zone (e.g., sinter or fumarolic
deposits), and 3) volcanic-intrusive environment.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Shawn Crispin, Exploration
Manager of PT Agincourt Resources for permission to use
data from the Martabe Mine. We are also grateful to our
colleagues formerly of PT Intrepid Mines, Adi Maryono,
Andrias Kristianto, Bruce Rohlach, Steve Williamson and
Rachel Harrison for their support and help, during field
mapping at Tujuh Bukit.
References
Moore JN, Christenson BW, Browne PRL and Lutz SL (2002) The
mineralogical consequences of descending acid-sulfate fluids: An
example from the Karaha Telaga Bodas geothermal system, Indonesia.
Proc 27th Workshop of Geothermal Reservoir Engineering, Stanford
Uni California
Reyes (1991) Mineralogy, distribution and origin of acid alteration in
Philippine geothermal systems, In High-Temperature Acid Fluids and
Associated Alteration and Mineralization, Matsuhisa Y, Masahiro A.
and J Hedenquist (eds) Geological Survey of Japan Report, 277: 59-65
1. Alteration Mapping Consultants, Plus Minerals Corresponding author: imantsk2@yahoo.com

44 l Sorting the Signal From the Noise David Lawie
Sorting the Signal From the Noise

David Lawie1
Modern mineral exploration can avail itself of enormous Australia. Several types of vegetation samples (i.e. litter,
volumes of data covering a number of disciplines, with roots, etc) were collected in combination with soil samples
additional data constantly being generated on a daily basis and then analysed by different methods including total,
during active exploration. This data represents information partial and selective digests. Anomalous Au, As and Mo
on ALL the processes that a particular piece of rock or soil were detected in several plant organs, with the best anomaly
has been exposed to. contrast provided by litter samples (Figure 1a, Anand
The interpretation of this data is reliant on use of models et al., 2007). By defining the hypothesis and rigorously
that describe these processes and the challenge, in a time testing it, the movement and accumulation of metals
poor exploration environment, is to define the processes in and by vegetation is demonstrated and so vegetation
of interest (e.g. evidence of a mineralising event) and can be confidently used as an exploration method in this
separate them from the irrelevant sources, to allow us to environment.
make decisions (e.g. drill another hole or walk away) in an However an alternative approach commonly seen is the
efficient way. This paper illustrates the process of sorting the fitting of an “interpreted signal” to data collected without
signal (mineralisation) from the noise (everything else) with consideration of process driving the metal movement and
examples from exploration geochemistry. accumulation. This approach often results in incorrectly
Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) methods can be utilised fitting the signal to random noise (Figure 1b) and the
to define for example: consequent failure to detect mineralisation or the incorrect
identification of a false positive.
• the process by which a signal related to mineralisation is
present within surficial materials and then test the data
to see if the hypothesis holds, or to Recognition and Removal of Processes
• define processes not related to mineralisation (noise) and not Related to Mineralisation
strip them away so that the signal can be more clearly
seen. In complex terrains, simple patterns dominated by the
mineralisation process (signal) are rarely observed. The
These are illustrated in the following examples. challenge then is to identify and isolate this mineralisation
signal from the noise. In other words, our data contains
Surface Exploration in Areas of information about both the background and the anomaly
Transported Cover and we need to be able to separate them. Sources of noise
may include, sampling error, poor program design, analytical
The uptake of elements from the subsurface by vegetation error, but also whatever patterns result from geological
is one method proposed for the vertical migration of metals processes unrelated to mineralisation.
through the regolith profile (Aspandiar et al., 2008). Plants A practical example is the analysis of stream sediment data
have the capability of taking up metals such as Zn, Mo, from the Robb Lake Pb-Zn deposit in North-Eastern
Se, Au, Ni, Cu As and Pb, storing them and ultimately British Columbia (data from Jackaman, 2008). EDA
releasing them to the surface (Aspandiar et al., 2008). The commonly starts from the simplest observations, in this
key to confident interpretation of this pattern is defining, case by identifying and locating anomalous Zn samples
in advance, that this migration mechanism is likely to occur with the aid of univariate plots (Figures 1c and 1d). The
and then vector to the source at depth. next step in the analysis is to understand if these represent
A good example that illustrates this process is the work of true Zn anomalies or if there are factors, other than the
Anand et al. (2007), which tested the use of vegetation in mineralization process, that influence the Zn distribution.
exploring areas of cover in the Yilgarn Craton, Western For example, adsorption by Fe and different background
1. General Manager – Analyitics, ioGlobal Pty Limited, 369 Newcastle Street Northbridge, WA 6003 Australia. Corresponding author: dave.lawie@ioglobal.net

45 l Sorting the Signal From the Noise David Lawie
Figure 1.
concentrations in different lithologies influencing the Zn identified compared to just picking the highest values in the
distribution. raw data.
A simple scatter plot of Zn vs Fe allows us to quickly
test and confirm whether Fe adsorption is occurring. A References
regression analysis of Zn on Fe is then undertaken to Anand, R., Cornelius, M., and Phang, C. (2007): Use of vegetation and
identify Zn residuals (i.e., Zn not controlled by Fe) which soil in mineral exploration in areas of transported overburden, Yilgarn
then can be visualised spatially (Figures 1e and 1f ). This Craton, Western Australia: a contribution towards understanding metal
is an example of how the signal (the Zn anomaly) can be transportation processes; Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment,
Analysis, Vol. 7 2007, pp. 267–288.
enhanced by removing the noise (Zn related to Fe content).
Aspandiar, M.F. Anand, R. and Gray, D. (2008): A review of mechanisms
A similar process can be applied to test if Zn is also of metal dipersion through transported cover: implications for mineral
controlled by geology. In this case a regression analysis, exploration in Australia; CRC LEME open file report, 246 p.
subdivided by geological group, can be undertaken to remove Jackaman, W. (2008): Regional Stream Sediment and Water Geochemical
the effect of geology on the Zn distribution (Figure 1g and Data, Pine Pass (NTS 93O), British Columbia; Geoscience BC, Report
1h). A completely different anomalous population is now 2008-7, 262 p.

46 l Biogeochemistry and Partial Digest Techniques in Mineral Exploration – a Brief Review Evgenia Lebedeva, Andrew Riley
Biogeochemistry and Partial Digest Techniques in

Mineral Exploration – a Brief Review
Evgenia Lebedeva1 and Andrew Riley1
The development of analytical instrumentation has expanded

opportunities for low level geochemistry and its application
in mineral exploration. There is growing interest to such
techniques as biogeochemistry and partial digest. Difficulty
with the interpretation of data from these methods often
prevents people from using them in exploration; however,
these methods could be very useful when exploring blind
or buried mineralization. Such geochemical techniques
combined with ground magnetic surveys, AEM conductivity,
hyperspectral data etc. can significantly improve drill targeting.
Biogeochemistry is particularly useful as a guide to the
underlying geology in areas of transported cover, where the
signature in the vegetation can be better than the soils1. In
arid and semi-arid conditions, due to greater root:shoot
ratios2 in vegetation, roots can penetrate several meters in
depth to reach the permanent water source. For example,
roots of Spinifex have been observed in mine pits at depths
of 30 m and below3. In tropical forests roots can penetrate
up to 18 m deep, while tropical grassland can penetrate Fig.1. Example of samples media that can be collected for biogeochemistry
even deeper (up to 68 m)2. There is very limited open data (leaves, bark, litter and roots) and partial digest (soil).
on biogeochemistry exploration in East Asia. It was found
that species of genera Homalium and Hybanthus were
identified as hyperaccumulators of nickel and can be used in Australia are Acacia and Eucalyptus, Spinifex, Tea tree,
as an indication of nickeliferous (usually ultrabasic) rocks4. Fuschia bush, Monterey pine, Black oak and Cassinia.
These plants are abundant in Indonesia, in particularly
Several companies with reports published on the ASX
on Sulawesi and Halmahera Islands. In ultramafic areas,
used biogeochemical sampling techniques to identify drill
such as Sabah (Malaysia) and the Philippines, the strong
targets, to name a few – Australasian Resources Ltd used
nickel hyperaccumulator is Phyllanthus balgooyi. For Au
vegetation sampling to identify Ni mineralization7, Marmota
investigations in equatorial regions Astronidium palauense,
a moderate size tree, is widely distributed in the region and Energy Ltd used vegetation to identify U mineralisation8,
can be successfully used in biogeochemical exploration5. In PepinNini Minerals Ltd used Spinifex to target Ni/Cu and
the Amazon region (Carajas) geobotanical remote sensing base metal mineralisation9, Blaze International Ltd applied
showed that distribution of vegetation correlated with biogeochemistry to target calcrete-hosted and granite-
variations in geology6. hosted U mineralisation10, Cullen Resources Ltd used
vegetation to delineate base-metal mineralisation11.
About 200 published scientific studies on biogeochemistry
in Australia were analysed at Intertek Genalysis. The Partial digest techniques are also used to detect trace
majority of studies (46 %) were devoted to identify Au element concentration in the top soil profile, avoiding
mineralization. In studies for Au mineralisation the major complete digest of silicate, iron or calcium-rich minerals.
plant tissue were leaves and leaflet branchlets (87%), bark Complete dissolution of such minerals results in high TDS
(7.8%), twigs (3.1%) and litter (1.6%). Bark and leaves on (total dissolved solids) content, increasing detection limits
average gave the highest values for gold anomalies. The for the trace elements of interest (for example Ag and Au),
most popular species successfully used in exploration studies which could be associated only with minor fractions (like
1. Intertek Minerals, Jakarta, Indonesia Corresponding author: Evgenia.lebedeva@intertek.com

47 l Biogeochemistry and Partial Digest Techniques in Mineral Exploration – a Brief Review Evgenia Lebedeva, Andrew Riley
clay or organic fractions). Partial digests enable preferential 2. Canadell, J. et al, 1996. Maximum rooting depth of vegetation types at
the global scale. Oecologia, 108, pp. 583–595.
high recovery of these ions in comparison to poor recovery
of ions that are lithologically sourced and more tightly 3. Reid, N., Hill, S., Lewis, D., M., 2008. Spinifex biogeochemical
expressions of buried gold mineralisation: The great mineral exploration
bound on the mineral surface. penetrator of transported regolith. Applied Geochemistry, 23, pp. 76-84.
A number of companies have successfully utilised Partial 4. Brooks, R.R. et al. 1997. Detection of nickeliferous rocks by analysis
Digests in exploration. Gold Road Resources utilised partial of herbarium specimens of indicator plants. Journal of Geochemical
leaching techniques over Permian cover in areas with no Exploration.
previous drilling. The partial leach was performed on -75 5. Mclinnes, B. I.A. et al. 1995. Biogeochemical exploration for gold
micron soil fraction of the top soil profile and this appeared in tropical rain forest regions of Papua New Guinea. Journal of
Geochemical Exploration.
to be more effective than conventional digest12. Trafford
Resources Ltd successfully used partial digests together 6. Paradella, W.R. et al, 1994. A geobotanical approach to the tropical
rain forest environment of the Carajas Mineral Province. International
with a geophysical exploration program13 (the soil was taken Journal of Remote Sensing, Vol. 15, 8, pp. 1633-1648.
within top 20 cm) to identify IOCG (Iron Oxide/Copper/
7. ASX Announcement 30 July, Australiasian Resources Ltd.
Gold) target while Investigator Resource Ltd was successful
8. ASX Managing Director’s Presentation, Marmota Energy Ltd.
in utilising partial digest to delineate silver mineralisation14.
9. ASX Financial Report 31 December 2010, PepinNini Minerals Ltd.
References 10. ASX Announcement 31 January 2012, Blaze International Ltd.

11. ASX Announcement 28 November 2011, Cullen Resources Ltd.
1. Anand, R.R., Cornelius, M., Phang, C. Use of vegetation and soil
in mineral exploration in areas of transported overburden, Yilgran 12. ASX Announcement 22 November 2012, Gold Road Resources Ltd.
Craton, Western Australia: a contribution towards understanding metal 13. ASX Announcement 14 March 2012, Trafford Resources Ltd.
transportation processes. Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment.
Analysis, 7, pp. 267-288. 14. ASX Presentation 7 December 2012, Investigator Resources Ltd.

48 l Geothermal Surface Manifestation and Alteration of Conggeang Area, Mount Tampomas, Sony Malik, Ferdian Haryadi,
Sumedang Regency Gita Srikandi
Geothermal Surface Manifestation and Alteration

poster
of Conggeang Area, Mount Tampomas, Sumedang

Regency
Sony Malik1, Ferdian Haryadi1, Gita Srikandi2
The research area is administratively

located on Conggeang Distric,
Sumedang Regency, West Java
Province. Physiographically, the
research area is located between
Bogor Zone and Quaternary
Volcanic Zone. Stratigraphy units
of the research area are divided into
three lithological units, from old to
young, i.e., Claystone Unit, Volcanic
Breccia Unit and Andesitic Unit.
Geothermal systems have three
important elements, i.e., reservoir,
Figure 1. Geological map at geothermal research area, Conggeang Area,
fluids, and heat sources. The Geothermal systems in the
Sumedang Regency, West Java.
research area triggered by volcanic activity associated
with Quaternary volcanism and magmatic intrusion.The
geothermal fluid type is mixing between chloride water
and bicarbonate water. Located in the outflow zones whit
high relief. Reservoir temperature between 200-210⁰C. The
Geothermal systems is flowing through fracture and cause
alteration in the surface of research area that form of sinter
travertine, vein and kaolinite.
Regional Geology
According to Bemmelen (1949), physiographically, West
Java region divided into four zone which has west-east
trending, i.e., Jakarta Beach Plain, Bogor Zone, Bandung
Zone, and Southern Mountains Zone. Research area is
located in the boundary between Bogor Zone and Volcanic
Quaternary Zone. Eastern slope of Tampomas Maountain, Figure 2. Physiographic of West Java, the research area is located at
also the western side of Arjawinangun Sheet (Djuri, 1973). the boundary between Bogor Zone with Quaternary volcanic zone
Research area is located at high topography with elevation (Bemmelen, 1949 in Martodjojo, 1984)
range 625 – 1.684 meter above sea level. Regionally, research
area has Java pattern stress (Fig 3). There is thrust fault,
dextral strike slip and anticline at the south east of the
research area. Thrust and fold relatively has north west-
Regional Stratigraphy
south east trending, which occur in Subang Formation and Research area located between Arjawinangun and Bandung
other sediment tertiary. Young tectonic activity showed by sheet. Lithological unit from younger to older are (Fig 4):
two trend of fault, north-south trending to north east-south
1. Alluvial
west (NNE-SSW), which cross cut Tampomas Mountain
volcanic sequence, but both fault not related to any thermal 2. Young Volcano Product consist of lava (Qyl) and
activities. disheveled volcanic rock (Qyu)
1. Departemen Teknik Geologi Insitut Teknologi Bandung Corresponding author: sony.jomul@yahoo.com

2. PT.PERTAMINA

3. Old Volcano Product consist of lava (Qvl), breccia

(Qvb), disheveled volcanic rock (Qvu).
4. Citalang Formation (Pt), consist of bedding of tufaceous
sandstone, conglomerate, and tufaceous claystone
5. Kaliwangu Formation (Pk), consist of tufaceous
sandstone, conglomerate, claystone, and bedding of
calcareous sandstone
6. Subang Formation, consist of claystone, marl, and
limestone.
Geological Setting
Stratigraphy Figure 3. Regional stress pattern on Java Island, the research area is
located in the Java pattern (modified from Punggono and Martodjojo,
There are three lithological units in the research area, which 1994)
are Claystone Unit as the oldest rock unit, Volcanic Breccia,
and Andesite as the youngest rock unit.
Claystone Unit
Claystone Unit is composed of Claystone lithology with
intercalation of tuffaceous sandstones. The unit’s appearance
in the field characterized by grey colored claystones,
calcareous, massive, have been undergoes conchoidal
weathering, and can be found nodules in some area (Image
2). According to petrography analysis, claystones in this
unit containing calcite, small foraminifera shell’s shards, and
glass shards. Micropaleontology analysis showed that this
unit was Upper Miocene Aged (N16 - N 18) based on Blow
Biozone (1969).
Volcanic Breccia Unit

Appearances of this unit characterized with volcanic breccia
with intercalation of lava flow and piroclastic. Breccia
with brown color, grain size of gravel to cobble, poor to
medium sorted, angular to sub-angular rounded, clay to
sand matrixed, non-calcareous cement, basalt fragment,
andesite, crystalline tuff, compact, open fabric, poor porosity
(Image 1). Has a spotted claystone matrix with a rounded
to sub-rounded grain shape. According to petrography
analysis, fragments inside the breccia contain crystalline tuff,
pyroxene andesite, and basalt.
Figure 4. Arjawinangun Stratigraphic
Pyroxene Andesite Unit
This unit appearance in the field characterized by bright
grey colored andesite, aphanitic-porphyritic with pyroxene Cikujang Fault
as fenocryst inside smooth matrix, massive (Image 3).
Based by petrography observation, the andesite that found The fault that cut the breccia unit and the claystone unit
in the research area is a pyroxene andesite with plagioclase observed by brecciation appearance off set contact between
microlite dominated matrix. breccia unit and claystone unit. The brecciation that lay on
the Cikujang River’s Cliff heading towards main direction
Geological Structure N 213 E. Based on structural analysis (Fig 6), Cikujang fault
is a right lateral-normal fault with N 330 E/730 strike and
Geological structure that existed in the research area is dip fault plane. Cikujang fault contain breccia alteration that
Cipicung fault and Cikujang fault. altered to clay mineral.

Cipicung Fault
Cipicung fault at Cipicung River observed
based on shear appearance on the riverside.
Beside, fault existence can be shown by the
offset contacts between claystone unit and
breccia unit with an approximately 10 meters
long so the fault cut the claystone unit and
breccia unit. Apart from the existence of shear,
there is also N 93 E brecciation trending. Based
on structural analysis (Fig 6), Cipicung fault
is a right-lateral-normal fault with N 95 E/58
strike and dip fault plane. Similarly as Cikujang
fault, Cipicung fault also contain breccia
alteration that altered to clay mineral.
Geothermal System
Geothermal system has three important
elements which are: reservoir, fluid, and heat
source (Goff and Janik, 2000). Characteristic
from this geothermal system’s elements
determined by water-chemical analysis from
three water samples that taken from the field, Figure 5. Mudstone unit profile at Cikujang River, indicate a change in
those are: Cipanas 1, Cipanas 2, and Cileungsing which are a lithology and sedimentary patterns due to changes in the environment
hot water manifestation from the geothermal system around
the research area.
Geothermal Fluid Type

Based on Cl, SO4, and HCO3 anion, hot water type in the
research area is a chloride-bicarbonate and bicarbonate
(Figure 8). Cipanas-1 sample derived from seepage along
Cipanas River that coming out through a fracture at
the volcanic breccia. Cipanas-1 hot water is dominated
by HCO3 anion (bicarbonate). Cipanas-2 classified as
a bicarbonate water (HCO3) that dominated by HCO3
anion. Cileungsing’s water sample classified as a chloride-
bicarbonate because the water consist a higher chloride
concentration which is 635.30 mg/L compared to HCO3
(519.50 mg/L) and SO4 (2.22 mg/L). Cileungsing’s hot
water is predicted derived directly from the geothermal
reservoir under the surface although it is affected by HCO3
(bicarbonate) and sulfate (SO4) ion.
Reservoir and Source

Relatively higher Cl concentration compared to Li and B
(Fig 9) showed that the hot water in the research area came
from the same reservoir and affected by volcano-magmatic
activity. And the high concentration of Mg-44 to 60 ppm-in
the research area showed that there been a mixing between
geothermal fluid and ground water near the surface.
Figure 6. The kinematics analysis and faults dynamic that show common
patterns of fault is dextral-down and down-dextral in the research area

Hot Water Flow Pattern

Bicarbonate water type that present showed that the fluid
reservoir had been condensed and mixed with surface water.
This thing indicate that the hot fluid undergo lateral flow
(outflow zone). Figure 9 shows that the hot water in the
research area contains high Cl concentrate compared to
B and Li. This thing shows that the hot water affected by
volcano-magmatic activity. Comparison of Na/K and K/
Mg that showed by Fig 10 indicate that three of the spring
is inside the outflow zone. By that we can conclude that
in this area occur a reaction between hot water, ground
water, and rocks near the surface. According to Hochstein
and Browne (2000), volcanogenic manifestation which
present in the geothermal system is highly affected by
reliefs and topography of the volcano (Fig 11). At the top Image 1. Breccia vulcanic unit at side of cipanas stream, poor sorted
of area, manifestation that present can be a fumarole and
solfatara that consists uncondensed steam and gas. Beside,
manifestation that could possibly present is sulfate spring
which is a result from a steam condensation that mixed
with shallow meteoric water so H2S oxidized become
H2SO4. Chloride water is located deeper than sulfate water
(Hochstein and Browne, 2000). Because of the topography
and hydrology gradient chloride spring usually found far
from the heat source and the main reservoir. Thus, on the
geothermal system in the research area is a high relief in
a form a mountain range, chloride water will be found in
the outflow zone, not in the up flow zone like a plain relief
geothermal system. Conceptual model that describe the
emersion of surface manifestation can be used as a reference
to knowing Tampomas Mountain’s geothermal system. Image 2. Claystone unit
Surface manifestation present in Tampomas Mountain
foothill took form in a bicarbonate and chloride-bicarbonate
hot spring at the outflow. Referring to the conceptual
model, chloride water that came directly from the reservoir
is possibly located in Tampomas Mountain foothills which
has lower elevation and farther than the peak. Thus, to get
chloride water sample that directly came from the reservoir
and haven’t mixed with the ground water can be done in the
foothills.
Manifestation location that took form of warm-chloride
water spring might be located a few kilometer from the
warm water manifestation that being currently observed.
Hot Water Isotope

This study is only observes a stable isotope concentrate.
Image 3. Andesite stone unit
Stable isotope that generally used in geothermal study is
hydrogen isotope (1H, 2H or D-deutrium), carbon (12C,
13C), oxygen (16O, 18O), and sulphur (32S, 34S). Those Some of the isotope value shows that magmatic-fluid
isotopes used for knowing the processes or the origin of contribution on geothermal fluid is minor (5 to 10 percent
water or gas. δD content on geothermal fluid is the same as from total) while the rest derived from meteoric water.
δD that consist in meteoric water. On the other hand, the The effect of magmatic fluid will show geothermal fluid
value of δ18O on geothermal fluid will be more positive δD value will not be the same with meteoric water δD
compared to meteoric water (Craig, 1956; Craig, 1963 in value (Nicholson, 1993). Stable isotope that used for warm
Nicholson, 1993). Alteration of δ18O value is caused by an water sample in the research area is D-Deutrium and
exchange reaction with a heavier isotope. 18O. Both isotope values are used to finding out that the

Figure 7. Map of sampling location
hot fluid in the geothermal system in the research area is

derived from meteoric water or magmatic fluid. Based on
deuterium isotope and Oxygen-18 value (Table 2), all three
of the hot spring located around the blue line which is a
global meteoric water line (Fig 12). This shows that the
geothermal system at Tampomas Mountain recharge from
meteoric water.
Geotermometer
Geotermometer is a method to calculate fluid temperature
in the reservoir. Geotermometer that used were adjusted
with character of the geothermal system. Reservoir fluid
temperature has error tolerance up to 10⁰C. Based on
temperature, the geothermal system can be divided into
three categorize, those are: high temperature geothermal
system (T ≥ 2500C), medium temperature geothermal
system (T=125-250⁰C), and low temperature geothermal
system (T ≤ 125⁰C).
High temperature geothermal systems generally associated
with volcano activity. Temperature can reach ≥ 2000C
(Hochstein and Browne, 2000). Thus, geotermometer
that suitable with high temperature is K-Na geothermal
Image 4. A. Cipanas-2 Warm Pool B. Cileungsing Hot Pool C. Springs
and Si02, because the geotermometer is valid with high
temperature condition (Nicholson, 1993). Formulas for the 2. Used if water contain low Ca based on the calculation
calculation of K-Na geotermometer are: (log (Ca1/2 / Na) + 2,06) and the result is negative.
toC = 1217/ [log (Na/K) + 1.483] – 273 (Fournier, 1979 in 3. Used to chloride water approach neutral pH.
Nicholson, 1993)
Silica geotermometer used were adiabatic quartz
toC = 1390/ [log (Na/K) + 1.750] – 273 (Giggenbach, 1988 geotermometer and conductive quartz. The formulas for this
in Nicholson, 1993) two geotermometer are:
The geotermometer have some limitation, those are: Adiabatic Quartz (Maximum Steam Loss): toC = 1522/
1. Used for water that has >180 0C reservoir temperature. (5,75-log SiO2) – 273 (Nicholson, 1993)

Conductive Quartz (No Steam Loss): toC =

1309/ (5,19-log SiO2) – 273 (Nicholson, 1993)
Quartz geotermometer is useful for the > 1500C
reservoir temperature condition. For example
geothermal system that were triggered by
magmatic activity. This geotermometer also have
some limitation, those are:
1. Adiabatic quartz geotermometer useful for
well and boiling hot spring or pond with ≥ 2
kg/s water discharge especially 50 that have
sinter silica. Maximum temperature has been
calculated by this geotermometer for spring
manifestation is ~ 2100C.
2. Conductive quartz geotermometer useful for
sub-boling temperature spring.
Hot water type that can be used for
geotermometer calculation is chloride water type
(Cl), because chloride water has pH of about
neutral which has the best condition to shows
the reservoir condition. In the research area,
geotermometer only used for Cileungsing hot
water, because that area is the only place which
has Cl anion dominated rather than HCO3 and
SO4 anion.
Based on geotermometer calculation, the
temperature we got are about 200-2100C
from K-Na geotermometer and 1050C from
conductive quartz geotermometer. And based
on some K-Na geotermometer requirement,
Table 1. The results of chemical analyzes of water sampling Cipanas-1, Cipanas-2 with (log (Ca1/2/Na) + 2,06) = -1,9 and silica
and Cileungsing geotermometer, the most suitable geotermomter
is K-Na geotermometer with 200-2100C
reservoir termperature. Thus, fluid reservoir
temperatures at Tampomas geothermal system
are about 200-2100C.
Surface Alteration
Alteration in the research area can be found
at Cipanas River and fault zone. At Cipanas
River, the alteration existed around hot water
manifestation, especially at the edge of fracture
which hot water coming through. At the fault
zone, alteration in a form altered matrix and
fragment volcanic breccia. Matrixes altered
become white and bluish grey colored clay
mineral.
Hot Water Seepage at Cipanas River

Hot water seepage around Cipanas River were
associated with fracture existence at Volcanic
Breccia Unit (Image 5). This seepage caused the
breccia were undergoing altered, not only at the
Figure 8. The type of geothermal fluid is water mixturing between chloride water surface but also in the matrix and its fragment.
with bicarbonate water Unlike the other breccia, this altered breccia

Figure 9. Comparison of B, Li and Cl indicate warm water in the Figure 10. Comparison of the relative content of Na-K-MG showed
research area associated with the activity warm water in the research area is an immature water
Figure 11. Conceptual Model geothermal system triggered by andesitic stratovolcano
Table 2. Isotope values of detrium and oxygen-18

had some character, those are red colored at the surface that
contact with hot water, also had calcite vein with 0,1-0,5
cm width and 5-20 cm long that filled the fracture and
weak plane between matrix and fragment Breccia outcrop
that found around the hot spring relatively more compact
compared to the other breccia and relatively had close fabric
which contact with hot water.
Table 3. The temperature of the reservoir based on the calculation of
Hot Pond various geotermometer
Hot pond at Cipanas Riverside form naturally

and left sinter travertine residue (Image 9). This
travertine has white colored, smooth texture, and
lamination shows that the depositional happen
iteratively. Massive and compact is the main
character of this deposit.
Fault Zone Alteration

There is altered rock become white and grey at the
area around fault (Image 10). Those altered rock
consist of variety of mineral, like quartz, albite, analsime, and Image 5. A. infiltration of warm water from the river through the cracks
kaolinite. Kaolinite existence indicated that altered processes B. Some of the hot springs in the riverbed (G11.14)
in acid pH condition (Lawless, 1993).
Existence of kaolinite mineral at the fault zone indicated
Alteration and Geothermal Pattern this alteration pattern.
Manifestation and alteration at the research area in a form
Altered process that occurred at the research area caused by sinter travertine and calcite vein. Both of this product
hot water coming through along fractures. Those showed alteration is composed by calcite. The differences between
by contact of hot water and made the appearance of breccia this two are subsurface formed for calcite vein, while sinter
become altered. Whereas alteration pattern at the fault zone travertine formed at the surface. Two of this mineral will
also associated with fracture form at CO2 rich condition based on the reaction:
that caused hydrothermal flow at the fault zone even though Ca2+ + CO2 +H2O → CaCO3 + 2H+
weren’t found hot water manifestation at the fault zone.
This reaction also showed that calcite (CaCO3) will occur
if Ca2+ rich and react with CO2. Kaolinite is alteration
mineral that formed at acid condition (Lawless, 1993).
While sinter travertine is surface deposit that formed
relatively more alkali condition compared to kaolinite
(Nicholson, 1993). Those two manifestations showed that
there is a change of fluid character at the research area. Acid
conditions become more alkali. Kalonite existence which
Figure 12. Shows the source of the fluid in the research area derived from
meteoric water Image 6. Calcite veins in volcanic breccia at Cipanas Stream (G11.12)

occurred at acid pH conditions could cause by condensation

process at the steam zone. Condensation near the surface
caused H2S oxidized became H2SO4 and pH rises. In
addition, kaolinite existence also associated with claystone
lithology at the research area.
Conclusion
1. Stratigraphy at the research area those are Claystone
Unit Upper Miocene aged (N16-N18), Volcanic Breccia,
and Pyroxene Andesite as the youngest rock unit.
2. Geological structure that existed in the research area
is Cipicung right-lateral normal fault and Cikujang
normal fault. This two of fault occurred in one phase of
deformation.
3. Geothermal fluid types are mix of chloride water and
bicarbonate.
4. Research area is an outflow zone. Kaolinite existence also Image 7. Thin section of vulkanic breccia matrix with calcite vein filling
fracture (G11.12)
showed lateral flow and formed at CO2 rich condition at
the atmosphere.
5. Tampomas geothermal reservoir temperatures are about
200-210⁰C. This high temperature geothermal system
generally associated with volcano activity.
6. Altered process that occurred at the research area
caused by hot water coming through along fractures.
Manifestation and alteration at the research area in
a form sinter travertine and calcite vein. Those two
manifestations showed that there is a change of fluid
character at the research area. Acid conditions become
more alkali.
References
Bemmelen, R.W. van, 1949, The Geology of Indonesia, Martinus Nyhoff, The
Haque, Nederland
Blow, W.H., 1969, Late Middle Eocene to Recent Planktonic Foraminifera
Biostratigraphy. Proceedings First International Conference on Planktonic
Microfossils, Geneva Image 8. Thin section of travertine sinter deposite on vulcanic breccia
Hochstein, M. P. and Browne, P. R. L., 2000, Surface Manifestations of (G11.15)
Geothermal Systems with Volcanic Heat Source. In Encyclopedia of xiv
Volcanoes (editor: Sirgudsson, H., Houghton, B., McNutt, S. R., Rymer,
H., Stix, J.), Academic Press, San Diego
Lawless, J. V., 1993, Epigenetic Magmatic-Related Mineral Deposits
Exploration Based on Mineralization Model, Kingston Morrison Mineral
Services, Auckland
Martodjojo, S., 1984, Evolusi Cekungan Bogor, Jawa Barat, ITB Press,
Bandung
Muhardjo, Nasution, A., Yusup, R. dan Yuhan, 1985, Laporan Penyelidikan
Geologi Daerah Panasbumi Gunung Tampomas, Kabupaten Sumedang,
Jawa Barat. Volcanology Directorate, Bandung
Nicholson, K., 1993, Geothermal Fluids Chemistry and Exploration
Techniques, Springer Verlag, German
Image 9. Travertine Sinter deposite at side of hot pool (G11.15 location)

Image 10. Alterated rock at G7.3 location, white colour
Figure 13. Geothermal system model in research area (without scale)

58 l Porphyry Copper-Gold Mineralization Styles along the Eastern Sunda Magmatic Arc, Indonesia Adi Maryono, Rachel Harrison
Porphyry Copper-Gold Mineralization Styles

along the Eastern Sunda Magmatic Arc, Indonesia
Adi Maryono1 and Rachel Harrison2
Porphyry mineralization has played a significant role in

contributing gold, silver and copper endowment to the
1,800km E-W striking Eastern Sunda Magmatic Arc,
part of the 3,940 km-long Sunda-Banda Arc (Setijadji et
al. 2006, Maryono et al. 2012). With a world class gold-
silver-copper endowment currently estimated at 92.44
million ounces of gold, 279.17 million ounces of silver
and 61.92 billion pounds of copper, the Eastern Sunda
Magmatic Arc has emerged as one of the most prospective
gold-copper belts in the world. The recently discovered
world-class porphyry deposit at the Tujuh Bukit Project
with 30.1 million ounces of gold and 19 billion pounds
of copper (Intrepid Mines Ltd., 2012) has now joined
two known world-class copper-gold deposits at Batu Figure 1. The Eastern Sunda Magmatic Arc with three world class-
Hijau and Elang to confirm the Eastern Sunda Arc as an porphyry Cu-Au deposits discovered along the belt, making it one of
emerging, economically important magmatic belt. Other world’s most prospective magmatic belts.
known porphyry prospects and related epithermal prospects
identified along the belt offer promising future resource at Pongkor and 3.0 Ma at Arinem (Marcoux and Milési,
potential. 1994; Garwin, 2000; Maryono et al. 2005; Roe pers. com,
Three world-class porphyry Cu-Au deposits at Batu 2012; Yuningsih et al., 2012). This is consistent with the
Hijau, Elang and Tujuh Bukit and high sulfidation Western Pacific region where the largest gold endowment
epithermal deposits at Pangulir, Sane, Gapit, Sabalong, (about 45.1% or 321.2 million ounces) is hosted in Neogene
Pelangan, Mencanggah and Tujuh Bukit (Oxide Zones) are magmatic arcs (Maryono and Power, 2009). In spite of
tectonically confined to the eastern segment (East Java to similarities to those in typical island arc settings, e.g. the
Sumbawa) that was constructed on thinner island arc crust Philippines, PNG, Solomon Islands and Fiji, porphyry
bounded by Australian continental crust further east in gold-copper mineralization styles in the Eastern Sunda
Sumba and Timor (Hamilton, 1979; Carlile and Mitchell, Magmatic Arc display some unique characteristics. Copper-
1994; Hall, 2002; Setijadji et al., 2006; Maryono et al. gold mineralization is spatially and temporally developed
2012). In contrast, the sub-economic porphyry prospects at within and around small, multiple, nested, tonalitic porphyry
Selogiri, Ciemas and Cihurip with dominant low sulfidation intrusions (<1km2 with +1km vertical extent) as apophyses
epithermal deposits at Pongkor, Cikotok, Cibaliung, to precursor underlying large, more equigranular texture,
Cikondang and Arinem occur in the western segment of the dioritic intrusive bodies (+4 km2). Intrusion ages range
arc (West to East Java) that developed on thick continental from 2.7 Ma at Elang, 3.7 Ma at Batu Hijau to 7.5 Ma
crust on the southern margin of Sundaland. at Selodong with latest intrusive activity marked by post-
mineralization diatreme breccia bodies which are developed
The whole metal endowment of the Eastern Sunda Arc
at the margin or adjacent to the porphyry systems and
is related to the Neogene magmatic stage, one of 5 stages
disrupt the mineralized bodies. Host stratigraphy is generally
of magmatic activity identified along the belt. Dating of
characterized by Miocene volcanic rocks and associated
mineralization age and/or related intrusion age shows similar
volcaniclastic rocks as a volcanic edifice. The volcaniclastic
features to the magmatic host rocks where mineralizing
rock sequence contains thin calcareous sedimentary rocks
intrusions have been dated as Neogene in age, 3.7 Ma at
and limestone, which form thin skarn mineralization, e.g. at
Batu Hijau, 2.7 Ma at Elang, 7.5 Ma at Selodong, 2.5 Ma
Elang, Batu Hijau and Tujuh Bukit.
1. PT Buena Sumber Daya, Jl. Radin Inten II No 2, Buaran Duren Sawit Jakarta Timur Corresponding author: adi.maryono@buena.co.id
2. Independent Geologist, Sading, Sempidi ,Badung Bali. Email:racharrison@gmail.com

59 l Porphyry Copper-Gold Mineralization Styles along the Eastern Sunda Magmatic Arc, Indonesia Adi Maryono, Rachel Harrison
Hypogene mineralization at the three world-class deposits, (+20 km2) as a product of late alteration events above
as marked by the 0.3% Cu zones in surface projections porphyry mineralized centers. The large lithocap bodies
of drill hole data, measures on average more than 1 km have undergone various erosion intensities to expose
in diameter and around 1km vertical extent. Hypogene porphyry deposits from very shallow or totally preserved at
alteration, veining and sulfide mineralization developed Hu’u, Brambang and Tujuh Bukit to deeply eroded at Batu
in three main temporally and spatially overlapping events, Hijau and Elang. High sulfidation epithermal gold-silver
termed as Early, Transitional and Late (Mitchell et al. 1998, mineralized systems are developed within lithocap bodies
Clode et al. 1999, Maryono et al. 2005 and Harrison, 2012). associated with quartz ledges at Elang, Brambang and Oxide
The gold and copper mineralization is directly related to Zones of Tujuh Bukit to form a telescoped system. Biotite
quartz veining, classified as “A’,”A-family”, “EDM”/”EB”, and shreddy chlorite (chlorite after secondary biotite) are the
“B”, “C” and “D” of Gustafson and Hunt, 1975, Brimhall, dominant alteration minerals in ore-bearing alteration zones.
1977 and Clode et al., 1999 .The copper-gold mineralization Actinolite is an important alteration mineral as part of ore-
forms an annular or inverted shell that lies within and bearing alteration assemblages along with biotite, chlorite,
around the margins of tonalite intrusive bodies. The Early oligoclase, k-feldspar and magnetite which develop during
“A” veins contain the bulk of hypogene chalcocite, digenite, early phase hydrothermal events. Abundant shreddy chlorite,
bornite solid solution (chalcocite-bornite and digenite- actinolite and minor or lack of k-feldspar marks notable
bornite) and bornite. These veins are estimated to constitute differences with regards to alteration at other deposits.
majority of quartz veins and copper content in the deposits. Zones of early alteration contain porphyry vein types “A”,
The transitional veins (“B” and “C”) contain chalcopyrite “EB”/’EDM” and “A-family” with dominant chalcopyrite
with minor or trace bornite. Bornite and chalcopyrite are and bornite mineralization.
the dominant copper sulfide minerals which form sulfide
zones, namely a central bornite dominant core, large References:
chalcopyrite-dominant middle zones and marginal pyrite
Arif,J. and Baker, T. 2004, Mineralium Deposita; 39, 523-535, Brimhall,
shells. Supergene copper mineralization is limited, developed G.H., Jr., 1977, Econ. Geo. 72, 37-59
beneath goethitic leached caps only at Batu Hijau and
Carlile, J.C., Mitchell, A.H.G., 1994, Jour. Of Geochemical Explor., 50,
Elang. A weak chalcocite blanket averaging 40m thick and
Clode, C.H. et al. 1999, Proc. Pac-Rim Cong, 485-498
0.5 to 0.7 % Cu has been intercepted in drill holes. The
copper enriched zone measures in excess of 500m by 750m Garwin, S., 2002, Indonesian Society of Economic Geologists, Special
Publication 9: 333-366
in plan view with variable thickness and is characterized by
an overlying goethite-hematite leached cap at the surface. Guilbert, J.M., Park Jr., C.F., 1986, The Geology of Ore Deposits, W.H.
Freeman and Co., NewYork
Very thin supergene copper mineralization (0.3 to 0.5% Cu,
10 to 20m thick) has been intersected at Brambang but does Gustafson, L.B. and Hunt, J.P., 1975, Economic Geology 70, 857-912
not form a significant chalcocite blanket. Hamilton, W.B., 1979, Professional Paper 1078, U.S. Geol. Surv.,
Washington, DC, 345
Porphyry mineralization in the Eastern Sunda Arc is
Hall, R., 2002, J. Asian Earth Sciences, 20: 353-431
typified by gold-rich porphyry systems with only Tujuh
Harrison R.L. 2012, MGEI Proc 4, 89-90
Bukit having significant molybdenum content (90 ppm)
at 0.2% cut-off. Majority of gold was deposited during the Intrepid Mines Ltd, 2012, Intrepid Mines Limited: http://intrepidmines.
com.au/investor-relations/news-and-announcements
formation of early “A”, ‘A-family” and “EDM/EB” veins
and is dominantly associated with bornite rather than Marcoux, E. and Milési, J.-P., 1994, J. Geochem. Explor. 50, 393-408
chalcopyrite (Clode et al., 1999, Arif and Baker, 2004; Maryono, A. et al.2005, IAGI Indonesian Minerals and Coal Discoveries,
Maryono et al., 2005 and Harrison, 2012). Gold mostly Maryono, A. and Power, D., 2009, Maryono et al. 2012, MGEI Proced
4, 23-30, Mitchell et al. 1998
occurs in bornite-rich ores within copper sulfide grains as
Inter PT Newmont Nusa Tenggara report, 164pp, Newmont Mining
invisible gold and other forms along quartz-silicate grain
Corporation, 2012, http://newmont.q4web.com/files/doc_presentations/
boundaries as native gold or free gold. The native gold grains Diggers & Dealers.pdf
are generally 1 to 12 µm. Higher free gold abundance Setijadji, L.D. et al, 2006, Resource Geology 56 (3): 267-292
develops in chalcopyrite-rich ore than bornite-rich ore (Arif
Ulrich T and Hendrich C.A. 2001, Econ. Geo. 96, 1719-1742
and Baker, 2004). It’s similar to other gold-rich porphyry
systems e.g. Alumbrera and Cadia. Yuningsih et al. 2012, Resource Geology 62 (2); 140-158
Surface alteration at district to deposit scale is typically

manifested by large overlying lithocap alteration bodies

60 l The Wafi-Golpu Porphyry Cu-Au Deposit: Mineralisation and Alteration Zonation, D. Menzies, S. Shakesby, J. Wass, D. Finn, N. Fitzpatrick,
Surface Geochemical Expression and Paragenesis. G. Morehari, B. Tekeve, B. Alupian, J. Kur, N. Kulinasi,
G. Miam, J. Larsen, D. Peter, P. Golias
The Wafi-Golpu Porphyry Cu-Au Deposit: Mineralisation

and Alteration Zonation, Surface Geochemical
Expression and Paragenesis
D. Menzies1, S. Shakesby, J. Wass, D. Finn, N. Fitzpatrick, G. Morehari, B. Tekeve,
B. Alupian, J. Kur, N. Kulinasi, G. Miam, J. Larsen, D. Peter and P. Golias
Introduction cutting fault/shear zones. The first appearance of actinolite

alteration correlates with the first appearance of chalcopyrite
The Miocene Wafi-Golpu gold-rich porphyry Cu-Au and is coincident with the 0.1% Cu shell. A zone of intense
deposit, and associated epithermal Au mineralisation is silicification and quartz veining occurs on the upper north-
located in the Morobe Province of PNG, and has a currently western margin of the Golpu porphyry mineralised system,
published resource of 28.5 million ounces of gold, 9.06 where pyrite is dominant over chalcopyrite mineralisation.
million tonnes of copper and 50.6 million ounces of silver This zone also displays minor crenulated and layered quartz
(Newcrest, 2012; Harmony, 2012). The Wafi Au prospect veining exhibiting unidirectional solidification texture
was originally discovered in the late 1970’s with the Golpu as reported by Seedorff et al. (2005), who proposed this
porphyry Cu-Au mineralisation uncovered in the 1991, and texture represents the transition between magmatic and
later considerably upgraded in size during 2009 (Mueller hydrothermal conditions and demonstrates that fluids
et al., 2011). The Wafi-Golpu porphyry Cu-Au system is accumulated in the apex of a porphyry stock during
bounded by a NE to SW trending fault zone known as the crystallisation. The Golpu porphyry Cu-Au sulphide
Wafi Transfer, and intrudes a basement sequence of weakly species have a concentric zonation from a bornite rich core
metamorphosed well-bedded siltstones and conglomerates grading out into chalcopyrite rich then pyrite rich zones.
of the Oligocene Langimar Formation (previously Au:Cu ratios are typically 0.6:0.9, and in several drill holes
interpreted to be the Owen Stanley Metamorphics). The (WR416, WR426) Au has a positive correlation with
Langimar Formation dipping between 50-80° to the E-NE observed bornite mineralisation (r=0.21, n=1890). This
has been intruded by several copper-gold mineralised relationship is consistent with experimental work by Simon
hornblende phyric to feldspar phyric diorite porphyry bodies et al. (2000) who proposed bornite can accommodate one
(Harris, 2010, 2011) and a late phase pheatomagmatic order of magnitude more gold than chalcopyrite. However,
diatreme breccia. The diatreme breccia is 800 x 600m in hand-specimen samples show evidence to suggest that Cu
diameter, bounded by pebble dykes, and is inferred to have and Au may have been remobilised in zones of intense
vented due to the presence of accretionary lapilli in layered sericite alteration, where chalcopyrite is observed rimming
bands at surface. bornite with appreciable Au grades, a relationship similar
to that reported at Batu Hijau by Arif and Baker (2004).
Mineralisation and Alteration Zonation Molybdenite mineralisation is typically found on the
margins and lower portions of the porphyry Cu-Au systems
Four discreet mineralising systems have been identified to often associated with potassic alteration within quartz-
date including: the Golpu porphyry Cu-Au system; the anhydrite veins, and occurs strongly in K-feldspar altered
Nambonga porphyry Cu system; the Wafi Zones A and B zones with later sercite overprint. Statistically analysis of
high sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation; and later drill core assays demonstrates a strong positive Pearson
Au-bearing Mn-carbonate veined and Au-rich, As-bearing correlation between Cu and Au (r= 0.607, n=32653),
pyrite epithermal mineralisation within Link Zone and a negative correlation between Mo and Au (r=-0.024,
Northern Gold Zone. The Golpu porphyry mineralised n=32653) and a neutral correlation between Cu and Mo
system exhibits a concentric alteration zonation consisting (r=0.031, n=32653). Similarly the Golpu block model
of a K-feldspar rich core (330 x 760m in diameter), grading shows Cu+Au rich zones off-set from Mo-rich zones. On
out into a biotite–magnetic rich zone (650 x 1000m in the south-eastern margin the Golpu porphyry A and B
diameter), an actinolite rich zone (640 x 1030m in diameter), stockwork mineralisation is overprinted by a telescoped
grading out into a chlorite dominated zone. Strong sericite high sulphidation covellite-enargite-pyrite epithermal
alteration overprint occurs at the eastern and western edges mineralisation and associated advanced argillic alteration.
of the Golpu porphyry and also centrally within cross This high sulphidation epithermal Au-Cu mineralisation
1. Wafi-Golpu Services Ltd. Corresponding author: douglas.menzies@morobejv.com

A.
Plate A Plaate B.

Plate C
C. Plaate D.
Plaate A. Sttruccturral em mpla cem ment of o G Golpu and Nam mbo ongaa
poorphhyryy inttrussion a ociatted with left‐ste
ns asso eppiing sinistrral faulf t
jogg, sho owinng zon nation of f blue po biotite‐K‐feeldssparr‐
otasssic (b
Maagnetitte) to greeen pro opy liticc altteraation (chloorite‐acctinolitte+//‐
eppidote) pro oducce bby hypeer‐saaline flu n K, Na,, Fe chlorid
uidss ricch in des..
Plaate B. IIntrusio
on o of th
he ddiattrem me ddue to meteoric incu ursioon o on aa
maagm maticc so on oveerprint on porrphyyry due
ourcce. Sericitte aalteratio e
to meteoricc draw w‐do own n. De epossitioon of chaalco opyrrite‐‐borrnite e
miinerralissatio
on by
b a a lo d sityy S‐rrich and Cu‐A
ow den C Au‐b bearringg ph hasee,
and laaterr molyb bdenitee byy hyypersalline Fe, K and b e as
d Cll ricch brin
oxoch hloriide com mpleexess.
Plaate C.. High
H su ulphhidaatio n epittherrmaal vuggv gy siliica‐aalun nitee‐
pyyropphyllite to dickitee‐kaaolinnite altteration n prroduceed by b an e y
a early
+
volatile riich eveent rresu ultin
ng frrom m the diisso ociattion
n of H2S0 S 4 tto H H . A A
latter liqu
uid‐richh evventt caarryying Au u‐Cu u‐Ass prroducin ng a a zo onaation n
fro
om enaargitte‐lu uzonitee, teenn antite‐tetrraheedriite tto ccove ellitee (ZZone e
Plate EE. A, B, CC).
Plaate D. Quaartz‐carrbonatee‐baase meetal + q quarrtz‐AAs‐ppyrite‐rrich low w
sulphiidattion epitheermal m mineerallisattionn pro oduucedd byy the e mmixin ng oof
preegnnantt Auu‐Ass‐Pbb‐Znn beearinng mag
m gmaatic fluiids with bicar
b rbon nate e
surfacce w wateers ((Link Zoone, Noorth hernn Zoone and pperr Naamb
d up bongga).
Plaate E. P
Postt minerral tthru ust ffaulltingg duuring th he PPlioccene (C Cloo os eet
al., 20
010)) offf‐settinng thhe pporpphyry m mineeralisattion.
ure 1. A parrageeneetic mo
FFigu odeel fo
or the
t formaatio
on of
o tthe Wafi‐‐Go olpu
u poorphyrry Cu‐A
C Au min neraalissatio
on, an
nd h
high nd low
h an w
ssulp dation Au minerralissation using fielld o
phid obseervaatioons, workk byy (Errcegg ett al.., 1991
1) aand Rya an aand d Vigarr (19
9999), pettrologyy
b Z ng et al. (19
by Zha 9977) and draawing on moodeels from SSilliitoe 2010
e (2 0), Corbeett and
a d Leeac h (199
98), Ulrich h and Maavro ogeeness
(200 08) andd Li et al. (20012).

exhibits a zonation from a vuggy (or residual) quartz- level intra/late mineral porphyry during rapid uplift
alunite bearing core, out to alunite-dickite, dickite-kaolinite (Corbett and Leach, 1998). Current drill hole WR457
with lesser pyrophyllite and diaspore, then illite-smectite shows a transition from hydrothermal breccia (diatreme)
alteration. Advanced argillic alteration dips to the east, sub- to a more magmatic-hydrothermal breccia with an aplitic-
parallel to dominant bedding, is indicative of a lithological quartz-silica matrix, and eventually to a quartz lacking
control to the alteration and mineralisation producing feldspar-biotite-hornblende phyric porphyry at depth below
fluids (Erceg et al, 1991). This style of mineralisation the diatreme. The lithologically controlled Zone A and
exhibits sulphide species zonation from enargite-luzonite, B high sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation then
to tennantite-tetrahedrite, covellite and As-bearing pyrite overprinted both the Golpu porphyry mineralisation and the
(Erceg et al, 1991). This high sulphidation mineralisation diatreme, and were followed by later Au-bearing carbonate-
is cut by later Au-bearing Mn-carbonate bearing (Zhang et base-metal and Au-As pyrite epithermal mineralisation
al., 1997) and As-bearing pyrite veins, interpreted to have commonly known as the Link Zone (Ryan and Vigar, 1999;
affinities with Carbonate Base Metal Au mineralisation Erceg, 2008). Recently observed cross-cutting relationships
as defined by Corbett and Leach (1998). Zhang et al. in Northern Gold Zone core (WR392) and petrological
(1997) interpret the occurrence of Au associated with analysis of core from the Link Zone by Zhang et al (1997),
Mn-carbonate (rhodochrosite) in the Link Zone core to be as well as discussions by Ryan and Vigar (1999), indicate
indicative of Au deposition associated with the mixing of this is the latest mineralising event to have resulted from the
bi-carbonate bearing meteoric waters with pregnant Au- mixing of pregnant metal bearing fluids with bi-carbonate
bearing magmatic fluids. bearing meteoric waters (Zhang et al., 1997; Corbett and
Leach, 1998). Post-mineral thrust faulting is believed to
Surface Geochemical Expression be part of a Pliocene (5.0 - 2.5Ma) E-W compressional
event (Reid, 2012, and Cloos et al., 2010)) and has offset the
Surface geochemical data describes a broad annulus 2.94km
Golpu porphyry mineralisation to the NW. Figure 1 shows
x 2.7km which contains >140ppm Zn rimming the entire
schematic diagrams of this paragenetic sequence. Copper
system, centred on the diatreme and is broadly coincident
mineralisation has undergone later supergene enrichment
with the propylitic alteration zone. Zone A and B high
forming a chalcocite-rich zone with associated supergene
sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation occurs (manifests
kaolinite and alunite.
at surface) as a zone of anomalous Au values in soil samples
(1.0 x 0.4km @ > 0.48 g/t Au). The southern portion of
the Golpu porphyry Cu-Au mineralisation is identified References
at surface by spotty Cu (>150ppm) and Mo (>35ppm) Arif, J. and Baker, T. 2004. Gold paragenesis and chemistry at Batu
anomalism in soil samples. The surface geochemical Hijau, Indonesia: implications for gold-rich porphyry copper deposits.
expression for both the Golpu and Nambonga porphyry Cu Mineralium Deposita 39:523-535.
deposits is well defined using the multi-variant statistical Cloos, M., Sapiie, B., Quarles van Ufford, A., Weiland, R.J., Warren P. Q.
and McMahon, T. P., 2010. Collisional delamination in New Guinea:
analysis method, Principle Component Analysis (PCA). The
The geotectonics of subducting slab breakoff. Geological Society of
PCA Cu-Mo and Au-Cu-Mo factors are the best indicator America Special Papers 2005;400;1-51
of both the Golpu and Nambonga porphyry Cu-Au
Corbett, G.J., 1994, Regional structural control of selected Cu/Au
mineralisation at depth. occurrences in Papua New Guinea, in Rogerson, R., ed., Proceedings
of the Papua New Guinea Geology, Exploration and Mining
Paragenesis of Wafi-Golpu Mineralisation Conference 1994: Melbourne, Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, p. 57−70.
Wafi-Golpu porphyry Cu-Au and associated epithermal Corbett, G. J. and Leach, T. M. (1998) Southwest Pacific Rim Gold-Copper
Au mineralisation are localised within a zone of extension Systems: Structure, Alteration and Mineralization. Economic Geology
associated with a left stepping sinistral fault jog, as part of Special Publication 6, 240p.
the Wafi transfer structure as described by Corbett (1994). Erceg, M. M., Craighead, G. A., Halfpenny, R., Lewis, P. J. 1991. The
The porphyry mineralisation is interpreted to have been exploration history, geology and metallurgy of a high sulphidation
epithermal gold deposit at Wafi River, Papua New Guinea. PNG
introduced by a two-phase fluid as proposed by Fournier Geology, Exploration and Mining Conference, 1991, p. 58 – 65.
(1999) comprising a hypersaline liquid rich in Fe, K and
Erceg, M., 2008. Terry Leach: Contribution to the understanding of the
Cl and a low density S-rich and Cu-Au-bearing phase hydrothermal ore-forming processes of the Wafi High Sulphidation
(Sillitoe 2010, Corbett and Leach, 1998). The negative Epithermal Gold Deposit and his role in the discovery of the Wafi
correlation between Mo and Au-Cu is indicative of a Porphyry Copper Deposit. AIG Bulletin 48 – Terry Leach Symposium.
separate transportation method for Mo into the system, Fournier, R.O., 1999, Hydrothermal processes related to movement of fluid
possibly associated with the hypersaline Fe, K and Cl rich from plastic into brittle rock in the magmatic-epithermal environment:
brine as oxochloride complexes as suggested by Ulrich ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 94, p. 1193−1211.
and Mavrogenes (2008) and Li et al. (2012) or a separate Harmony, 2012. Golu gold equivalent reserve ounces significantly
enhances value of Harmony’s assest portfolio. (http://www.harmony.
intrusion phase of the complex. It is believed the diatreme
co.za/investors/news-and-events/company-announcements-2/
intruded and vented due to a phreatomagmatic eruption announcements-2012/641-golpu-gold-equivalent-reserve-ounces-
resulting from the ingress of meteoric water onto a high significantly-enhance-value-of-harmony-s-asset-portfolio)

Harris, A., 2010. Petrology Report; v.2: Summary of Petrological Ryan, S. J. and Vigar, A. 1999. Discovery of the High-Grade Link Zone
Observations from Drill holes WR315, WR316, WR318, WR320, at Wafi, PNG. PACRIM 99 Congress, 10-13 October Bail Indonesia.
WR321, WR323 (66 Samples). Internal unpublished report to MMJV. The Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Publication Series
CODES ARC Centre of Excellent in Ore Deposits, University of No 4/99.
Tasmania pp. 40
Seedorff, E., Dilles, J.H., Proffett, J.M., Jr., Einaudi, M.T., Zurcher, L.,
Harris, A., 2011. Petrology Report; v.3: Summary of Petrological Stavast, W.J.A., Johnson, D.A., and Barton, M.D., 2005. Porphyry
Observations from Drill holes WR327A, WR328, WR331, deposits: Characteristics and origin of hypogene features: ECONOMIC
WR331-W1, WR333 (36 Samples) - INTRUSIVE PHASES. Internal GEOLOGY 100TH ANNIVERSARY VOLUME, p. 251−298.
unpublished report to MMJV. CODES ARC Centre of Excellent in
Ore Deposits, University of Tasmania pp. 26 Sillitoe, R. H., 2010. Porphyry Copper Systems. Economic Geology,
105:3-41.
Li, N., Chen, Y., Ulrich, T. and Lai Y. 2012. Fluid inclusion study of
the Wunegetu Cu-Mo deposit, Inner Mongolia, China. Mineralium Simon, G., Kesler, S.E., Essene, E.J., and Chryssoulis, S.L., 2000,
Deposita, 47:467-482. Gold in porphyry copper deposits: Experimental determination of
Muller, C., Bandy, L., Finn, D., Golias, P., Hayward, S., Menzies, D., the distribution of gold in the Cu-Fe-S system at 400° to 700°C:
Shakesby, S., Tekeve, B., and Wima, M. 2011. Unveiling a hidden ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, v. 95, p. 259−270.
giant: discovery of the Golpu Gold-Copper Porphyry Deposit, Papua Ulrich, T., and Mavrogenes, J., 2008, An experimental study of the solubility
New Guinea. NewgenGold Conference Perth, 2011. of molybdenum in H2O and KCl-H2O solutions from 500°C to
Newcrest, 2012. Golpu Pre-Feasibility Study and Reserve Announcement. 800°C, and 150 to 300 MPa: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 72, p.
(http://www.newcrest.com.au/media/resource_reserves/2012/ 2316−2330.
August_2012_Golpu_Pre-Feasibility_Study_and_Reserve_
Zhang, L., Leach, T., and Merchant, R., 1997. Petrographic investigations
Announcement.pdf )
of drill core samples from holes WR158, WR159, and WR160, Wafi
Reid, R., 2012. Report on the Structure Modelling Completed on the Wafi- River Prospect, Papua New Guinea. Terry Leach and Co Unpublished
Golpu Project and Decline Route. MMJV Internal report. report for CRA Exploration Pty Ltd. Report number 97128.

64 l Case Study: Discovery and Geology of the Kham Thong Lai Copper-Gold Deposit, Lao PDR Paul Merriner
Case Study: Discovery and Geology of the Kham Thong

Lai Copper-Gold Deposit, Lao PDR
Paul Merriner
The Kham Thong Lai (KTL) deposit is a stratabound broad Au and Cu BLEG anomalies which ultimately led
porphyry-skarn style copper gold system located to the rediscovery of the KTL deposit. It was around this
approximately 8km ESE from the provincial town of time that the name KTL was adopted by Normandy Anglo
Phonsavan in Xiengkhouang Province, Lao PDR (Fig. workers, which in Laotian translates as abundant gold
1). It lies within the Mineral Exploration and Production and copper.
Agreement granted to Phu Bia Mining. The deposit is Follow-up of this early work comprising geological mapping,
situated proximal to the confluence area of the northern gridded soil geochemical sampling and ground and airborne
Loei Fold Belt (LFB) and Truongson Fold Belt (TFB) magnetics assisted in locating and defining KTL and
and lies within a complex and deformed arrangement directed Normandy Anglo to undertake a scout drilling
of magmatic arc and rift volcano-sedimentary rocks campaign over the most prospective geochemical targets.
and intrusives overlying Khorat type continental clastic This drilling consisted of 31 diamond drill holes, many of
sediments. Exploration work within the LFB and TFB which returned significant gold and copper intercepts along
has led to the discovery of several ore
deposits including Phu Kham Cu-Au,
Ban Houayxai Au-Ag, Sepon Cu-Au
and Chatree Au-Ag. Orogenic activity
associated with the development of the two
belts has involved widespread plutonism
and volcanic activity throughout the belt
regions. It is this magmatism which has
played a fundamental role in the formation
of the KTL deposit.
Historically, copper at KTL was probably
first identified by the local people of the
area who referred to the site as Phu Thong,
a name which is still in use today and
literally translates as Copper Mountain in
Laotian. Archaeological finds of bronze
artefacts and the discovery of smelting
furnaces in Laos confirm that metal
production technologies were available
and it may be that copper was mined
and produced from KTL centuries ago,
although this is unconfirmed. In more
recent times during the French colonial
administration small scale mining was
undertaken at KTL from 1951 until 1953.
In 1994 until 1996 Normandy Anglo
Asian Pty Ltd, who were the original
owners of Phu Bia Mining, undertook
regional stream sediment sampling over
the Phonsavan area. This work returned Figure 1. Location Map
1. Phu Bia Mining, Laos Corresponding author: peter.leaman@pbm.panaust.com

65 l Case Study: Discovery and Geology of the Kham Thong Lai Copper-Gold Deposit, Lao PDR Paul Merriner
a 2.3 kilometre long E-W trending zone. At completion and truncation of the deposit but not to a significant extent,
Normandy Anglo reported KTL as a significant resource based on recent modeling.
of low-grade copper and gold and concluded that that the Alteration styles within the host geology are complex and
metal grades were not high enough to justify further work at comprise diverse and localised alteration packages associated
that time. Exploration at KTL consequently ceased. with different lithologies. Diorite and microdiorite intrusions
In 2001 PanAust, then operating as Pan Australian Resources exhibit propylitic (chlorite/carbonate/± epidote) alteration of
NL, took an 80% stake in the Phu Bia Contract Area in Laos. varying intensity with strong development associated with
The remaining 20% of PBM was later acquired by PanAust stockwork zones and increasing in intensity toward skarn
from Newmont in 2005. Between 2004 and 2005 PanAust contacts. Weak to strong phyllic alteration is also widespread
commenced a review of all previous work completed at KTL and occurs as sericite-silica-pyrite alteration within the
by its former owner. PanAust geologists also re-logged the diorite and sediments. Stockwork vein associated sulphide
Normandy Anglo drill core and remapped the prospect phases within intrusive bodies are also associated with weak
area. Based on this work PanAust recognised potential in to strong sericite-silica alteration. No significant potassic
the project and a decision was made to conduct further alteration is associated with the KTL deposit and only minor
exploration work, which included gridded soil sampling, secondary biotite is observed in the core. Prograde altered
trenching and ground and airborne geophysics. Encouraging calc-silicate skarns contain mainly garnet and pyroxene and
results consequently led to the resumption and continuation typically show an outward progression from diorite to brown-
of exploration drilling from 2006 onwards. To date a total of red garnet skarn to green-yellow garnet skarn to marble to
290 drillholes have been completed by PanAust, defining an limestone. Massive magnetite skarn occurs when the host
indicated and inferred mineral resource (at 0.25% Cu cut-off ) rock has undergone complete replacement of the original
of 89 MT @ 0.44% Cu, 0.18g/t Au and 1.7g/t Ag containing mineral assemblage by magnetite.
approximately 390,000 tonnes of copper, 515,100oz of gold Base and precious metal mineralisation at KTL is
and 4,864,400oz of silver. The majority of the stated mineral considered to be coeval with stock emplacement. Re-Os
resource is primary mineralisation. age dating from vein hosted molybdenite returned an
The host sequence at KTL consists of an E-W trending, age of 289.4 ± 1.0 Ma. Mineralisation occurs as several
moderate south dipping, weak to moderately foliated styles. Low to moderate grade Cu-Mo-Au mineralisation
sedimentary package of Late Carboniferous–Early- is typically hosted in multi-phase stockworks and sheeted
Permian age which contains alternating sequences of quartz-sulphide veins, and as disseminated and aggregate
strongly deformed interbedded siltstone, sandstone, micritic mineralisation within and proximal to intrusive stocks. High
limestone and carbonaceous shales of passive shallow marine grade Cu-Au is associated with banded and semi-massive to
and volcaniclastic origin. The volcano-sedimentary sequence massive sulphides hosted within prograde and more typically
is intruded by rift related calc-alkali stocks that occur as retrograde altered calc-silicate and magnetite-pyrrhotite-
elongated bodies and lobes showing a west to northwest pyrite exo-skarn. Skarn hosted mineralisation is more
trend. Late quartz-feldspar rhyodacite porphyry dykes common and significantly higher in grade within exoskarn
intrude both the diorite and host sediments. compared with endoskarn, the latter typically comprising
At district scale the Phonsavan area lies at the margin of a mainly garnet skarn varieties. Dominant sulphide minerals
south verging fold-thrust belt of probable late Permo-mid for both styles are pyrite, chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite with
Triassic age. Evidence of the fold-thrust system is observed less common molybdenite, bornite, sphalerite and galena.
at KTL as localised brittle-ductile and ductile shear in the Secondary copper within the supergene profile is weakly
core. Statistical analysis of shear data indicates the shear developed throughout the deposit and occurs mostly in the
fabric dips moderately south. Late WNW and NE structures form of malachite with lesser chalcocite and rare chrysocolla.
also occur and appear to have formed after the timing of The deposit is at the pre-feasibility evaluation stage with
mineralisation. This faulting is responsible for disruption additional drilling to upgrade the resource base.

66 l The Magmatic Arc and the Slate Belt: Copper-gold and Tin tungsten and AHG Mitchell, Myint Thein Htay
Gold Metallotects in Myanmar
keynote
The Magmatic Arc and the Slate Belt: Copper-gold and

Tin-tungsten and Gold Metallotects in Myanmar
AHG Mitchell1 and Myint Thein Htay1
Myanmar can be divided into a Western province or arc

system, comprising the Popa-Loimye magmatic arc and
associated basins and ridges, and an Eastern province. The
Eastern province consists, from west to east, of the Mogok
Metamorphic belt; the Slate belt; the Paunglaung- Mawchi
zone; and the Shan Plateau which was accreted to Asia
in the Triassic. The Popa- Loimye magmatic arc and the
Slate belt each host distinctive types of mineralisation and
include, at Monywa and Mawchi, two of Myanmar’s four
world- class mineral deposits (Fig.1).
The Popa- Loimye magmatic arc is a discontinuous belt of
intrusive and volcanic rocks extending from Mt Popa north
and northeastwards through the extinct stratovolcanoes at
Taungthonlon and Mt Loimye to near Bumba- bum south
of Chaukan Pass. A forearc basin (Win Swe, 1972) and the
Indo- Myanmar Ranges lie between the arc and Ganges-
Brahmaputra delta in Bangladesh (Steckler et al., 2008)
where the seismic Benioff zone dips very gently east.
Three segments of the magmatic arc are separated by
sedimentary cover. In the largest or Wuntho- Banmauk
segment (United Nations, 1978) basement greenstone is
overlain by a sequence of marine basalts and andesites,
mudstones, dacites and mid- Cretaceous limestones.
Calc- alkaline I- type plutons comprising the Kanzachaung
batholith intrude the sequence below the limestones, and
are mostly early Upper Cretaceous but locally Palaeogene.
Mineralisation includes the Shangalon porphyry copper-
gold prospect in an Oligocene intrusive complex (United
Nations, 1978), numerous mesothermal quartz - gold veins
within the batholith and its host rocks, epithermal quartz-
gold veins, pyritic low-temperature replacement quartz
bodies, and recently discovered occurrences of volcanogenic
massive sulphide.
To the south, in the Monywa- Salingyi arc segment, mid-
Cretaceous (95 to 105 Ma) I- type diorites and granodiorites
intrude pillowed basalts and are overlain by late Tertiary
sediments and in the north by small extinct basaltic Figure 1. Map of Myanmar showing Popa- Loimye magmatic arc and
stratovolcanoes (Chhibber, 1934a). At the Monywa copper Slate belt. Fa Falam, Ka Kalaw, Ky Kyaukse, Mc Mawchi, Me Mergui,
mine ( Kyaw Win and Kirwin, 1998; Mitchell et al., 2011) Mk Mogok, Ml Meiktila, Mo Moulmein, Mt Myitkyina, Mu Mong
sandstones, overlying stratified diatreme deposits, and mid- Hsu, My Monywa, Na Namhkan, Ng Ngapali, Pd Padatgyaung,
Miocene quartz andesite porphyry intrusions are cut by PMZ Paung Laung- Mawchi zone, Pu Putao, Sh Shinmataung, Ta
pebble dykes. Chalcocite-digenite and covellite occur with Tavoy (Dawei), Tg Tagaung, Tk Tachilek, Ty Taunggyi.
1. Myanma Precious Resources Group, Yangon, Myanmar Corresponding author: andrewmitch999@aol.com

67 l The Magmatic Arc and the Slate Belt: Copper-gold and Tin tungsten and Gold Metallotects AHG Mitchell, Myint Thein Htay
in Myanmar
pyrite in veins and pebble dykes, and as disseminations, in Wolframite from several hundred tin and tungsten
four high sulphidation epithermal deposits. Hydrothermal mines in the Slate belt accounted for 29 percent of global
alteration assemblages which include quartz, sericite, tungsten production in 1914. Deposits are associated with
pyrophyllite and alunite within more regional chlorite are the apices of S-type, or reduced ilmenite series I- type
overprinted by supergene kaolin. Barren leached caps up peraluminous biotite- muscovite granites. Cassiterite is
to 200 m thick overly the chalcocite and covellite which mined from alluvial deposits, pegmatites and quartz lodes,
are partly hypogene but largely products of supergene and wolframite from quartz lodes and bordering greisen
enrichment. The pre- mining resource was over 2 billion (Chhibber, 1934b). Much production was from weathered
tonnes containing 7 million tonnes copper. Nearby auriferous material. Most of the wolframite is from the Mawchi mine,
quartz veins occur in rhyolites and silicified sandstones. from Padatgyaung east of Nay Pyi Daw, and from the Tavoy
(Dawei) region in southern Myanmar.
In the southernmost arc segment the Mt Popa stratovolcano
overlies mid- Miocene and younger andesitic lavas which Zircon U-Pb and the few Rb/Sr isotopic ages on the
host widespread bodies of copper and gold- anomalous mineralised granites indicate late Cretaceous to Eocene
replacement quartz-pyrite-alunite within pyritic clays, and ages (Cobbing et al.,1992, Mitchell et al., 2012), implying
rare breccia dykes. crustal melting younger than generation of the orogenic
quartz- gold veins in the Slate belt. Many of the more
Northeast of Taungthonlon, arc volcanics of Tertiary age productive tin- tungsten lode deposits are at high elevations,
underlie the Mt Loimye stratovolcano, and are reported suggesting limited erosion and a stable landmass since the
at Kawt-a-bum and Bumba- bum (Chhibber, 1934a), the late Cretaceous.
probable sources of alluvial gold in the Hukawng valley. The
regional Sagaing dextral fault (Win Swe, 1972) offsets the
arc’s speculative former continuation northeastward from
References
Bumba- bum through the Tagaung-Myityina belt. Chhibber, H.L., 1934a. The Geology of Burma. Macmillan, London, 538p.
Chhibber, H.L., 1934b. The Mineral Resources of Burma. Macmillan,
The Slate belt in Myanmar (Fig.1) continues SSE for London, 320 p.
2000km to Banka Island in Indonesia (Mitchell et al.,
Cobbing, E.J., Pitfield, P.E.J., Darbyshire, D.P.F. and Mallick, D.I.J., 1992.
2012). It consists largely of Carboniferous to early Permian The Granites of the South-East Asian Tin Belt. British Geological
mudstones or argillites and quartzites, with thick diamictite Survey, Overseas Memoir 10, H.M.S.O., London, 369p.
beds implying glaciation in Gondwana. To the east the Kyaw Win and Kirwin, D., 1998. Exploration, geology and mineralization of the
narrow Paunglaung- Mawchi zone of late Mesozoic Monywa copper deposits, central Myanmar. In Porphyry and Hydrothermal
sedimentary and volcanic rocks and older flysch may be an Copper and Gold Deposits: a Global Perspective. Proceedings of the
Australian Foundation Conference, Perth, Australia, 61-74.
early Permian suture on which the Slate belt and western
Myanmar collided with the Shan Plateau following Mitchell, A., Sun-Lin Chung, Thura Oo , Te-Hsien, and Chien-Hui Hung,
2012. Zircon U-Pb ages in Myanmar: Magmatic- metamorphic events
eastward subduction of a Palaeotethys ocean. and the closure of a neo-Tethys ocean. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences
Within the Slate belt orogenic quartz- gold veins 56, 1-23.
were discovered in 1999 by Ivanhoe Mines at Modi Mitchell, A.H.G., Win Myint, Kyi Lynn, Myint Thein Htay, Maw Oo and
Taung northeast of Nay Pyi Daw. Gold here is in Thein Zaw, 2011. Geology of the high sulphidation copper deposits,
Monywa mine, Myanmar. Resource Geology 61, 1-29.
steeply- dipping narrow but high- grade stylo- laminated
Steckler, M.S., Akhter, S.H. and Seeber, L., 2008. Collision of the Ganges-
book- and -ribbon quartz veins within a 30 km long
Brahmaputra Delta with the Burma arc: implications for earthquake
NNW-trending district. The veins, mostly tabular but hazard. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 273, 367-378.
with rare isoclinal folds, are hosted by argillites, intruded United Nations, 1978. Geology and Exploration Geochemistry of the
by calc- alkaline porphyritic dykes, extend for over 530 m Pinlebu-Banmauk area, Sagaing Division, northern Burma. Technical
vertically, and provide a resource grading over 30 g/ t Au. Report no. 2, Geological Survey and Exploration Project, United
Gold values at Modi Taung exceed those of Ag, As, Cu, Nations Development Programme, DP/UN/ BUR-72-002, United
Nations, New York, 69p.
Pb and Zn, but veins 12 km to the north have higher base
Win Swe, 1972. Strike-slip faulting in Central Belt of Burma. In: Haile,
metal content. Since no veins occur in granites, we infer
N.S. ( Ed.), Regional Conference on the Geology of Southeast Asia.
gold deposition from metamorphic fluids, perhaps during Geological Society of Malaysia Newsletter 34, Annex, Abstracts, Kuala
early Permian orogeny. Lumpur, p.59.

68 l Mineralisation Potential of the Kulu-Fulleborn Trend (Whiteman Range), Chris J. Muller, Kieran Harrington,
New Britain Island, Papua New Guinea Hugh McCullough, Lindsay W. Bandy
Mineralisation Potential of the Kulu-Fulleborn Trend

(Whiteman Range), New Britain Island,
Papua New Guinea
Chris J. Muller1, Kieran Harrington1, Hugh McCullough1 and Lindsay W. Bandy1
Introduction Since then sporadic follow-up exploration has been

undertaken on New Britain by a number of companies.
Papua Mining plc controls exploration licences over an In 1968 Placer (PNG) Exploration Pty discovered a
area of some 2,600 square kilometres along the Whiteman mineralised porphyry system at Plesyumi which it drilled
Range of New Britain Island, which stretches for 150 in the early 1970’s. Subsequently, significant copper/gold/
kilometres from Eleonora Bay on the north coast to the molybdenum deposits were discovered at the Mt. Nakru and
village of Fulleborn on the south coast. The geological the Simuku areas. Most of the mineralisation discovered
setting is favourable for porphyry Cu-Au-Mo, high and low- historically occurs within the Kulu-Fulleborn Trend, a
sulphidation epithermal Au/Ag, high-grade skarn-type and corridor of Upper Oligocene-Pliocene intrusives and
volcanogenic massive sulphide mineralisation. volcanics which follows the strike of the Whiteman Range
(Fig 1.).
Following the discovery of the Panguna deposit on
Bougainville island in the mid-1960’s Conzinc Rio Tinto The area has now emerged as one of the most prospective
of Australia (CRA) commissioned a research vessel the belts for Cu/Au mineralisation in Papua New Guinea. In
CRAEStar to carry out a wide reaching survey of the recent years Australian junior Coppermoly Limited have
Western Pacific Rim to explore for porphyry copper/gold reported a mineral resource at Simuku of 200 million tonnes
deposits. The survey included reconnaissance geochemical at 0.36% copper, 61 ppm molybdenum, 0.06 g/t gold and
surveys of New Britain Island and a series of stream 2 g/t silver. At the Nakru-1 deposit the same company has
geochemical anomalies were identified across the island reported a resource of 38.4Mt at 0.82% copper equivalent.
including a number along the Whiteman Range. In July 2012 another junior explorer, Foyson Resources
Figure 1. Map of New Britain Island, showing location of Papua Mining tenements with respect to deposits and
prospects within the Kulu-Fulleborn Trend.
1. Papua Mining plc, Kula’s Place, Section 35 Alotment 13, Hibiscus Street (off Wards Road), Hohola, Port Moresby, National Capital District
Corresponding author: chris@papuamining.com

Limited, reported that drilling by the company confirmed and Mt. Nakru (Mackenzie, 1975; Hine and Mason, 1978;
the presence of a significant mineralised porphyry system at Titley, 1978). Local structural controls, superimposed on
Atui Prospect near Fulleborn. the prominent northwest trend, have clearly controlled
The exploration licence areas controlled by Papua Mining Upper Oligocene emplacement. There is a general decrease
plc encompass approximately 70 percent of the Kulu- in age of igneous activity in a northwest direction along
Fulleborn Trend. the trend. This corresponds with a shallowing in the depth
of formation of mineralization, from the deeper porphyry
Regional Geologic Setting coppers at Kulu-Simuku and Plesyumi, to relatively shallow
epithermal mineralization at Kavola East (Lindley, 2003).
The basement rock in the Kulu-Fulleborn Trend comprises The two main recognised intrusive complexes at Simuku
Eocene – Oligocene Baining Volcanics, mainly consisting and Plesyumi are located approximately 70km from each
of andesitic lava flows and pyroclastic rocks interbedded other and are unlikely to have been separated by significantly
with conglomerates and sandstones. The Kapuluk Volcanics greater distances in the past. However the complexes appear
(Oligocene – Miocene) are extensively exposed andesitic and to be magmatically unrelated, being geochemically and
dacitic lava flows and form the central Whiteman Range. isotopically distinct. The more felsic rocks of the Plesyumi
The basement rocks were intruded by a series of gabbroic Intrusive Complex possess geochemical characteristics
to dioritic stocks and plugs ranging in age from 29 – 22Ma that are typical of adakites. These differences may be
(Page & Ryburn, 1977). The smaller dykes and plugs explained through magma mixing, as opposed to fractional
occur as elongate bodies aligned with regional NW and crystallisation (Horne, 2011). Slab melting formed adakitic
NE lineaments, suggesting a structural control during melts and caused a pulse of melting in the aqueous fluid-
their emplacement. Simuku rocks possess arc tholeiite hybridized mantle wedge. K-rich magmas are commonly
characteristics, while those from Plesyumi range from mafic, associated with Au deposits (e.g., Müller and Groves, 1993;
high-K gabbros to felsic, medium to low-K granodiorites Sillitoe, 2002; Blevin, 2002) and their presence as an end
(Horne, 2011). member in the Plesyumi mixing process raises the possibility
The Yalam Limestone was deposited around the flanks of that these magmas were the source of Au.
the basement during a period of reduced volcanic activity in Based on compilations of isotopic compositions for the
the Upper Miocence (22 – 10Ma) (Lindley, 1998). During western Pacific, the Oligocene to Miocene magmas of New
a period of uplift and renewed volcanic/plutonic activity Britain were derived from variable contributions of the mantle
in the Pliocene period, the Mungu Volcanics and Kapiura source of Pacific MORB (rather than Indian MORB) and
Bed sedimentary sequences were laid down mainly to the ocean floor sediments comparable to Solomon Sea sediments.
north of the Whiteman Range. Volcanism continued
intermittently from the Pliocene to present times. Exploration Strategy and Definition of
The Kimbe Volcanics (Pleistocene-Recent), consisting of
ash and lapilli tuff, can blanket all lithologies including Drill Targets
the basement rocks especially on the northern side of the From 2009-2010 Papua Mining plc completed a
Whiteman Range. In particular in lower areas several meters comprehensive historical technical data compilation exercise,
of cover could at times potentially mask the geochemical collating all available geological, geochemical and remote
signature of mineralised bodies. sensing data. A study was completed on data from a 1982
Pre-Miocene structural deformation is dominated by Esso aeromagnetics and radiometrics survey which had
almost orthogonal sets of NW to NE trending faults. The covered the majority of the Kulu-Fulleborn Trend. Reduced
regional alignment of the basement and associated plutonic to Pole (RTP) magnetic images highlight the Kulu-
rocks closely relates to these prevailing trends, supporting Fulleborn Trend as several parallel structural linears and
structural control during igneous emplacement. Post- the known mineral occurrences are located on or proximal
Miocene deformation is dominated by NW-SE trending to these major lineaments. Most of the known porphyry-
high angle horst and graben fault blocks. The Pre-Miocene style occurrences occur within well-defined magnetic low
faults seem to have been reactivated in most cases. zones on the residual RTP magnetic image. Such zones
may be related to hydrothermal activity associated with
Genetic Model for Intrusions and Associated porphyry systems. These findings are significant in terms of
exploration targeting, specifically for determining known
Au/Cu Mineralisation mineralised trends from outside the concession area and,
Many Upper-Oligocene and Pliocene dioritic intrusives secondly, identifying new potentially mineralised areas. 3D
are localized in the Kulu-Fulleborn Trend and host inversion models were generated on subsets of the dataset
porphyry copper, skarn and gold mineralisation (Titley, for the known mineralised areas.
1978). Significant zones of mineralisation include, from the The compiled exploration data was used to generate ranked
northwest, Kavola East Prospect, Kulu-Simuku, Plesyumi prospective target lists and the company embarked on a

major field exploration program along the Whiteman Range a strongly positive correlation with the IP results, with a
during 2010, with teams carrying out rock chip and soil well-developed zone of high conductivity within the high
sampling, geological mapping and topographic surveys. chargeability zone.
To date more than 10,000 soil geochemical samples have Several strands of the exploration work completed by
been collected. Typically the soil grid spacing used is 400 the company to date therefore point to the presence of a
x 50 metres. Substantial copper in soil anomalies (>100 number of porphyry systems within the exploration area.
ppm Cu in soils) were identified at Nakru (the Tripela and Drill testing of the most advanced target is scheduled to
Flying Fox Anomalies), at Kori-Dagi five kilometres east of commence in March. The company anticipates an initial
the known Simuku deposits, and at Plesyumi South in the drilling programme at Junction of three or four diamond
vicinity of the known Plesyumi porphyry system. core drillholes to test the chargeability/conductivity target.
More than 40 km2 in the Nakru area was geologically
mapped, by experienced geologists with a knowledge of References
the surface expressions of porphyry and porphyry-related Blevin, P. L. (2002). The petrogenic and compositional character of variably
systems. Lithology, alteration and structure were classified K enriched magmatic suites associated with Ordvician porphyry Cu-
and mapped along all drainages and other exposures, Au mineralisation in the Lachlan Fold Belt, Australia. Mineralium
with the aim of recognizing favourable host lithologies, Deposita, 37, 87-99.
hydrothermal alteration related to porphyry development Hine, R., Mason, D.R. (1978). Intrusive rocks associated with porphyry
and conducive plumbing and dilational environments, copper mineralisation, New Britain, Papua New Guinea. Economic
Geology, 73, 749-760.
respectively.
Horne, P. (2011). The Plesyumi and Simuku Intrusive Complex, New
The mapping data revealed a range of porphyritic intrusives, Britain (PNG): Contrasting Magma Sources and Evolution in a
amid intercalated volcanic tuff and pyroclastic packages, to Subduction Zone. MSc (unpublished).
some degree with breccia development along the contact Lindley, I.D. (1998). Mount Sinivit gold deposits. In: Berkman, D.A. and
zones. Zoned alteration is obvious in the Nakru area Mackenzie, D.H. (Eds), Geology of the mineral deposits of Australia
( Junction anomaly), where a silica cap is surrounded by and Papua New Guinea. Australasian Institute of Mining.
intermediate argillic alteration characterized by dickite- Lindley, I. D. (2003). Echinoids of the Kairuku Formation (Lower
kaolinite-pyrite. Distally, these alteration assemblages give Pliocene), Yule Island, Papua New Guinea: Spatangoida. Proceedings of
the Linnean Society of New South Wales.
way to sericite and finally chlorite dominated country rocks.
Mackenzie, D.H. (1975). Uasilau and Kulu porphyry copper occurrences,
Simultaneous rock chip sampling (for a total of more New Britain, in Economic Geology of Australia and Papua New
than 2,500 samples) was carried out with outcrop samples Guinea, 1. Metals, edited by C.L. Knight (Australasian Institute of
returning assays as high as 29% copper at Flying Fox and Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne), Mono. 5, 845-850.
25% copper at the Tripela prospect, both areas feature the Müller, D., Groves, D. I. (1997). Potassic Igneous Rocks and Associated
occurrence of extensive diorite intrusives with associated Gold-Copper Mineralization. Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences, v. 56,
hydrothermal, heterolithic, milled breccias. Several trenches (2nd, updated and enlarged ed.). Spring-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg.
have been excavated within the mineralised zones and results Page, R. W., Ryburn, R. J. (1977). K-Ar ages and geological relations of the
are pending. intrusive rocks in New Britain. Pacific Geology, 12, 99-105.
Sillitoe, R. H. (2002). Some metallogenic features of gold and copper
Induced Polarisation (IP) and Electromagnetics surveys deposits related to alkaline rocks and consequences for exploration.
(EM) have been completed at the Junction target. IP results Mineralium Deposita, 37, 4-13.
there have outlined a resistive, low chargeability core, flanked Titley, S.R. (1978). Copper, molybdenum and gold contents of some
by an annulus of high chargeability, typical of the response porphyry copper systems of the southwestern and western Pacific.
one might expect from a porphyry body. The EM data shows Economic Geology, 73, 977-981.

71 l Alluvial and Bedrock Platinum, East Asia Yulia Nazimova, Gregory Ryan
Alluvial and Bedrock Platinum, East Asia

Yulia Nazimova1 and Gregory Ryan2
The most productive economic deposits of

alluvial platinum in the world are associated with
ultramafic zoned complexes of Ural-Alaskan
(UA) type. While a number of deposits ranging
up to 180 tonnes of metallic platinum have been
mined very profitably in Russia, Canada, Alaska
and Australia, only in the Russian Far East
(Kondyor and Galmoenan) are such deposits
still being mined. Alluvial and bedrock platinum
deposits associated with the Galmoenan and
Kondyor UA intrusions are the main topic under
consideration.
Bed-rock Platinum Deposits

UA complexes are pipe-like, concentrically
zoned, ultramafic-mafic intrusions of dunite-
pyroxenite-gabbro formation, typically ranging
in size from 12 to 80 sq km. They occur in two
distinct geological settings. The majority occur
within mobile belts close to continental margins
(eg Galmoenan). Such intrusions are more or less
deformed, and may also be partially tectonically
dismembered. More rarely, UA complexes
intrude the stable continental platform. In this
case, the zonal structure and the pipe-like shape Figure 1. Locations of the Galmoenan and Kondyor intrusions and their satellite images.
are normally perfectly preserved (eg Kondyor).
Both the Galmoenan and Kondyor intrusions exhibit a zonal at least 10 km deep (Fig.1), the massif has a dunite core
structure with a well-developed dunite core (about 75-80% of 5.5 km in diameter. Age determinations are inconclusive,
the volume), surrounded by a clinopyroxenite rim 50-500m ranging from Mesozoic to Archean–Early Proterozoic
wide and some gabbroid occurrences. In the case of Kondyor, (about 2.5 Ga) [4].
a later phase of alkaline rocks has developed, forming a
The main source of platinum is the dunite core, particularly
network of veins in the dunite and clinopyroxenite.
the coarse-grained part containing chromite accumulations.
The Late Cretaceous Galmoenan intrusion is located in Several mineralised zones have been delineated on both
the north of the Kamchatka peninsula, Russia (Fig.1). The Galmoenan [7] and Kondyor [unpublished company
intrusion is elongate in a northeasterly direction, being 14 reports]. These zones are characterised by centimeter to
km long and 2–3 km wide. Based on gravimetric data, the metre-scale chromite segregations occurring sporadically
intrusion represents a tectonic outlier, which is estimated to within the dunite. Platinum distribution within the
have been displaced some 8–15 km from the main thrust [1]. chromite segregations is very irregular, with variations up to
The Kondyor intrusion is located in the Russian Far East, 340% having been encountered in individual samples. The
about 1100 km north of the city Khabarovsk. Forming a “nugget effect” (isolated assays up to 100s of ppm Pt) is very
circular, chimney-like structure about 8 km in diameter and characteristic of this style of mineralisation.
1. Director/Principal Consultant, NZ Exploration Ltd, 33 Richmond Road, Takaka 7183, New Zealand Corresponding author: jul_nz@yahoo.com
2. Director/Principal Consultant, NZ Exploration Ltd, 33 Richmond Road, Takaka 7183, New Zealand Corresponding author: pacificgeological@hotmail.com

72 l Alluvial and Bedrock Platinum, East Asia Yulia Nazimova, Gregory Ryan
At both Galmoenan and Kondyor, Fe-Cu-Pt alloys comprise grade varies from 0.5-5 g/m3 (up to 60-80 g/m3 in some
more than 90% of PGM, with isoferroplatinum (Pt3Fe) parts) [3, 5].
strongly predominant. Numerous publications describe the At both Galmoenan and Kondyor, 70-95% of the platinum
PGE mineralogy of both complexes [3, 5, 7-9]. occurs in the basal wash, with minor quantities on “false
Detailed applied PGE mineralogy has been carried out bottoms”. Isoferroplatinum comprises 97% of the PGM,
on bulk samples from strongly mineralised zones of the with grain size varying from 0.2-5mm close to the intrusion
Galmoenan intrusion [7, 9]. Similar work is currently and from to 0.05-0.5mm more distant from the intrusion
being carried out on Kondyor. In samples with low and [1]. Grains also become more rounded with increasing
“background” Pt content, PGM (mainly isoferroplatinum) distance from the intrusion.
are finely disseminated, commonly in a cubic crystal form, Typically 2.5% of the concentrates are composed of nuggets.
whereas high-grade samples exhibit clustered aggregates
Kondyor has produced more than 20 nuggets weighing more
(up to several centimetres) of Pt–Fe alloys, cementing the
than 1 kg, the largest being 3.5kg [10]. The largest nugget
chromite grains. The average grain-size of the PGM in the
from Galmoenan was 1.2 kg. Chromite and magnetite are
mineralized zones is 175 µm. Despite the presence of large
also present in the concentrate and minor gold occurs at
quantities of small inclusions of PGM (50%, <0.05 mm), the
Kondyor.
bulk (70%) of the actual metal content is composed of grains
>0.4 mm [7, 9]. Alluvial platinum exploration employs similar techniques
to those used for alluvial gold. Modern or fossil river
There is potential for economically mineable platinum
channels must be delineated and then explored using bulk
deposits to exist within UA intrusions, particularly in Kondyor
sampling methods, usually churn drill, cable tool rig or
and Galmoenan. Such deposits are likely to comprise
similar, or excavator, depending on depth to bedrock and
aggregates of many mineralised clusters, occurring with
ground conditions. Entire 1m samples are processed through
sufficient density and grade to be viable. Using appropriate
a gravity separator such as goldsaver or small alluvial
exploration techniques in such settings would be critical to
processing plant. The results are used to generate grade-
success. In particular, the trench and drill samples should be
thickness contours and cross sections, to enable resource
no less than 250 kg per 1m interval, in order to give reliable
determination.
and repeatable results [7, 9]. It is also necessary to generate
average grades over relatively large blocks. Pilot processing of
bulk (several tonnes) samples should be part of this process. Literature
A very positive feature of such intrusions is that the platinum 1. Koryaksko–Kamchatsky region – a new platinum province of Russia.//
can be recovered by simple gravity separation [2]. Saint-Petersburg Cartographic Factory, VSEGEI Press, 283-315 (in
Russian).
While considerable bedrock exploration has been carried
2. Bogdanovich A.V., Petrov S.V., Nazimova Yu.V., Vasilyev A.M.,
out in the past at Galmoenan, exploration is currently in Urnysheva S.A. (2010): Peculiarities of processing minerals with high
progress only at Kondyor. non-uniformity of valuable components distribution (example of platinum
ores).// Obogashcheniye rud, 2, pp 3-8 (in Russian).
Alluvial Platinum Deposits 3. Mochalov, A.G. & Khoroshilova, T.S. (1998): The Kondyor alluvial placer
of platinum metals.// Proc. Int. Platinum Symp. Theophrastus Press,
Since 1993, eight platinum placers have been delineated Athens, Greece, pp 206-220.
at Galmoenan. Of the seven currently being mined, the 4. Malitch K. N., Efimov A. A., Badanina I. Yu. (2012): The Age of Kondyor
biggest, Ledyanoy and Levtyrinvayam, have produced about Massif Dunites (Aldan Province, Russia): First U–Pb Isotopic Data //
25 tonnes of platinum each. The Ledyanoy placers formed Doklady Earth Sciences, Vol. 446, Part 1, pp. 1054–1058
in several creeks close to the intrusion, with productive 5. Malitch, K.N. (1999): Platinum-Group Elements in Clinopyroxenite–
horizons typically 2-3 km long, 20-130m wide and 0.4- Dunite Massifs of Eastern Siberia (Geochemistry, Mineralogy, and
Genesis).// VSEGEI Press, St. Petersburg, Russia (in Russian).
5m thick, with average grade varying from 0.4-7 g/m3.
6. Melkomukov V.N., Zaytsev V.P. (1999): Platinum placers of Seynav–
Overburden thickness varies from a few metres to 60m.
Galmoenan knot (Koryak–Kamchatka province).// Platinum of Russia,
Interestingly, the Levtyrinvayam placer commences 10km III, pp 143-149 (in Russian).
from the intrusion. Various theories have been proposed to
7. Nazimova Yu.V., Zaytsev V.P., Petrov S.V. (2011): The Galmoenan massif,
explain this but none has been substantiated. With a length Kamchatka, Russia: geology, PGE mineralization, applied mineralogy and
of 9 km, width of 250-400m and thickness of 2.5-4m, the beneficiation// Canadian Mineralogist, v.49, 6, pp 1433-1453
average grade of the productive horizon varies from 0.8-5.2 8. Nekrasov I.YA., Lennikov A.M., Oktyabrsky R.A., Zalishchak B.L.,
g/m3. Overburden thickness is typically 7-8m [1, 6]. Sapin B.I. (1994): Petrology and Platinum Mineralization of the
Alkaline-Ultramafic Ring Complexes. Nauka, Moscow, Russia (in
The Kondyor placers occur both inside the ring structure Russian).
(Kondyor River and its tributaries) and beyond the gorge
9. Petrov S.V., Nazimova Yu.V., Bogdanovich A.V. (2010): Applied PGE
through the ring, where the Kondyor flows into the mineralogy and ore beneficiation of the Galmoenan deposit, northern
Uorgalan River (Fig.1). Platinum placers are known to Kamchatka.// Proc. 11th Int. Platinum Symp. (Sudbury).
extend for 70 km downstream. Mining began in 1984 and 10. Sushkin L.B. (1996): Characteristic features of native metals from the
annual production is still 3-4 tonnes. The average platinum Kondyor deposit.// Geology of Pacific Ocean, Vol. 12, pp 915–924.

73 l The History of Coal Development in Indonesia A. H. (TONY) Osman
The History of Coal Development in Indonesia

A. H. (Tony) Osman
The story of coal development and reconstruction in

Indonesia over the past 150 years or so is one of the most
remarkable that can be told today. Indonesia came from
nowhere to its place in 2013 as the world’s largest exporter
of thermal / energy coal.
The narrative divides easily into several phases which are...
1. First beginnings to the Japanese occupation during the
Pacific War 1942
2. Destruction and decline- 1942-1967
3. Reconstruction and the groundbreaking laws of 1/1967
(the foreign investment law) and 11/1967 (the general
mining law) under the administration of President
Soeharto. Emergence of Kalimantan as the location of
export quality steam coal and discovery of high quality
coking coal in Central Kalimantan. Sumatra with lower
quality steam coal.
4. The concept of coal Cooperation Agreements, later to
become Coal Contracts of Work. First, second and third
generation, 1981 onwards.
5. Regional Autonomy legislation and the new mining law
of 2009.
The presentation outlines some of the present day challenges
to coal investment by foreign investors especially the smaller
companies.
1. PT Carsurin, Askrindo Building, Jln Angkasa, Block B-9, Kav.8 - Kemayoran, Jakarta 10601 Corresponding author: tony@carsurin.com

74 l Interpolating Assays and Physical Properties in Folded and Faulted Layered Geology Rod paterson
Interpolating Assays and Physical Properties in Folded

and Faulted Layered Geology
Rod Paterson
The GeoModeller Domain kriging algorithms, Guillen et

al, 2011, implement two new methods for interpolating
petrophysical properties (porosity, permeability, density,
magnetic susceptibility) or chemical grades (Fe, Cu, Pb,
Zn…) while honouring the geometry and internal structure
of the host geological units.
Traditional distance weighting interpolation methods that
calculate the distance between samples using Cartesian
coordinates (east, north and elevation) are not satisfactory
in a folded and faulted stratigraphic unit or banded ore
horizon. The distance between samples is no longer a Figure 1: Curvilinear distance between two points A and B: Point A
straight line, Figure 1, Guillen et al, 2011. Current methods is on the isovalue potA, point B is the isovalue potB. The distance dg (A,
used to solve this problem involve unfolding prior to B) is the length of the arc AmBm (in blue) at isovalue potM = (potA +
interpolation followed by reconstruction back to the original potB)/2. The distance dg (A, B) is therefore defined as dg (Am, Bm).
geometry. This can be a very difficult process in complex
structural environments.
• dgu and dgv are the projection on the principal axes u
The GeoModeller Domain Kriging algorithms are described
and v of the geodesic distance dg and u and v are the
below, Guillen et al, 2011.
directions of anisotropy on the plane xy rotated with
1. When the variability of the parameter to study is mainly an angle q from axis x and y.
correlated with the pot coordinate (a metal deposited by
We may have a geometric anisotropy on the plane xy
a sedimentary process), the variogram in the space (pot,
and zonal anisotropy along the pot coordinates and two
dg, q) is in reality a function of pot and we have: pot
different nugget effects for pot coordinate (C 0 ) and xy
g(pot,dg,q) = g(pot) dg
plane (C 0 ).
In this case, we have pure “zonal anisotropy” Further work is required to improve the performance of
The normal coordinate to the isovalues, Figure 1, defines this second domain Kriging algorithm in GeoModeller
the potential coordinate (pot); it represents the value of as it is computationally heavy.
the potential field function. Computation of potential
distance (orthogonal to potential isovalues) between the Data Import Storage, Validation and Kriging
two points A and B, pot (A, B) is very easy: it is the
absolute value of the difference between pot (A) and pot Procedures in GeoModeller
(B). This can be thought of as a measure of formation GeoModeller allows the user to load 3D numeric drillhole
thickness between points A and B. data as from/to intervals attached to 3D drillhole
This algorithm is fast to compute due to its relative desurveyed path objects where they can be viewed and
simplicity. compared with logged geology and the interpolated geology
model computed by the dual co-kriging method, Lajaunie
2. The General case: g(pot,dg,q) = g(pot,dgu,dgv)
et al. 1997.
Where:
A procedure to regularize (composite) irregular from/to
• dgu,dgv represent respectively the geodesic distances sample intervals is available and should be used. Regularised
along the u axis and the v axis, which are the axes drillhole numeric data is then transferred to a 3D vertex
representing the anisotropy in the xy plane. mesh for statistical/neighbourhood/variogram analysis and
1. B.Sc (Geology/Geophysics), FAusIMM, Intrepid Geophysics, Melbourne, Australia Corresponding author: rod@intrepid-geophysics.com

75 l Interpolating Assays and Physical Properties in Folded and Faulted Layered Geology Rod paterson
interpolation. Alternatively 3D numeric point data derived

from sources other than drillholes may be loaded directly
Acknowledgements
into a GeoModeller 3D vertex mesh for analysis (surface This work has been carried out on behalf of Intrepid
and underground sampling, seismic velocity …). Geophysics who is responsible for the commercialisation of
Geostatistical procedures follow the normal sequence GeoModeller through an agreement with BRGM, France.
of variogram analysis and cross validation followed by Many thanks to Antonio Guillen of the BRGM for his
interpolation using the chosen Kriging method (1D, 2D, work in developing these new algorithms.
Domain Pot, Domain uvPot) or Sequential Gaussian
simulation. An Inverse distance interpolator is also available. References
The Domain Kriging algorithms, by following the geology Guillen, A., Courrioux, G., Bourgine, B. (2011). 3D Kriging using potential
gradients, produce a tighter more natural distribution of fields surfaces, Proceedings IAMG 2011 conference September 5-9
2011, Salzburg, Austria
interpolated physical values.
Bertoncello, A., Caers, J.K., Biver, P., Caumon, G. (2008). Geostatistics
Examples of the Application of Domain on stratigraphic grids in Ortiz J et Emery X, Proc. 8th Geostatistics
Congress, 2, 677-686
Kriging Calcagno, P., Chilès J.P., Courrioux G., Guillen A. (2008): Geological
modelling from field data and geological knowledge: Part I. Modelling
method coupling 3D potential-field interpolation and geological rules.
A folded and faulted resource example is presented to Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, Volume 171, Issues 1-4,
demonstrate the improvements that the new Domain December 2008, pp. 147-157
kriging algorithms can make to more traditional classical Chilès, J.P., Delfiner, P. (1999): Geostatistics: Modeling Spatial Uncertainty.
Kriging interpolation results in this environment. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY., 2nd Edition includes a proper
introduction to the geology co-kriging estimation, at the core of
The Domain Kriging method has also been used in Geomodeller technology.
the interpolation of physical properties (density and
Jayr, S., Gringarten, E., Tertois, A.L., Mallet, J.L., Dulac, J.C. (2008): The
susceptibility) where the explorer wishes to determine need for a correct geological modelling support: the advent of the UVT-
whether his drilled resource target fully explains the transform. First break 26.
observed geophysics (gravity and magnetic surveys). The Lajaunie, C., Courrioux, G., Manuel, L. (1997): Foliation fields and 3D
interpolated physical property 3D grids or voxets are used as cartography in Geology 29, 571–584.
inputs to GeoModeller’s geophysical forward modeling and Mallet, J.L. (2004). Space-time mathematical framework for sedimentary
stochastic inversion. This is considered to be a more robust geology. Mathematical Geology 36, 1–32.
alternative to single property modeling of the resource
geology. An ability to estimate geological uncertainty at all
points in the 3D resource model is an extra independent
capability of these techniques.

76 l Porphyry Cu-Au Occurrences in Batulicin Area, Batangasai, Jambi Province, Indonesia Rusiana Permana, sufian nur hikmat,
Yosafat P. Simanjuntak, Eratmadji,
bronto sutopo
Porphyry Cu-Au Occurrences in Batulicin Area,

Batangasai, Jambi Province, Indonesia
Rusiana Permana1, sufian nur hikmat1, Yosafat P. Simanjuntak1, Eratmadji1 and Bronto Sutopo1
Batulicin and Bujang prospect are located in Batang Asai clay minerals (neutral to acid clays, low temperature to
district of Sarolangun region, Jambi province, Indonesia. high temperature clays) as one of the vectors in fluid
The mineralization in Batulicin prospect is typified by Cu- source interpretation. Bujang geology related to dome-
Au comprising chalcopyrite in biotite-magnetite±Kspar diatreme complex which consist of coherent volcanic rocks
alteration. Intermediate sulfidation epithermal overprint (crystal tuff, volcanic andesite and dacite) also clastic rocks
around Batulicin prospect produces quartz vein with galena, (phreatomagmatic breccia and hydrothermal breccia). The
covellite, sphalerite and tennantite. Batulicin geology major mineralization in Bujang deep level of high sulfidation
consists of volcanic and intrusive rocks. Volcanic andesite epithermal emerge in hydrothermal breccia and vein. The
units, tuffs units (ash, accretionary lapilli, lapilli tuff-tuff geophysics data like ground magnetic used to delineate high
breccia), crystal tuff, dacite porphyry, phreatomagmatic and magnetic anomaly which is interpreted as biotite-magnetite
phreatic breccia. There are three major intrusion consisting alteration (prograde), low magnetic anomaly is interpreted
of diorite, porphyritic diorite and hornblend-quartz diorite as advance argillic and sericite alteration (retrograde). The
(low altered-unaltered). The alteration is dominated by resistivity used to delineate high resistivity anomaly which
kaolinite. Weak sericitic-illite-kaolinite and illite-smectite is interpreted as high silica alteration and the chargeability
appear in the west side of Batulicin, sericitic-illite±chlorite, used to delineate high chargeability anomaly which is
chlorite-shreddy chlorite-sericitic±epidote, chlorite-biotite- interpreted as pyrite shell.
magnetite±Kspar, sericite
(muscovite-paragonite)-
illite-chlorite, advance
argillic (pyrophyllite-alunite-
dickite-kaolinite±diaspore)
and siliceous (massive-vuggy
quartz) alteration appear in
Batulicin upstream which
forms Bujang lithocap.
The porphyry veining is
dominated by D vein,
M vein, A vein, B vein,
C vein also banded quartz
vein which is overprints
early vein. Meanwhile,
the mineralization in
Bujang prospect is typified
by Cu-Au comprising
covellite, chalcocite, and
enargite in advanced argillic
(pyrophyllite-alunite-dickite-
kaolinite±diaspore) and
Figure 1.
siliceous (vuggy-massive
Interpretative
quartz) alteration. ASD Terra Geology-Alteration
Spec™ used to delineate Map of Batulicin,
alteration zonation specially Tangkui
1. PT. Aneka Tambang (Persero) Tbk. - Geomin Unit, Jl. Pemuda No.1, East Jakarta, Indonesia. Phone 021-4755380, Fax. 021-4759860
Corresponding author: rusianapermana@gmail.com, bronto.sutopo@gmail.com

77 l The Pani Gold Project: Geology and Mineralization C. Querubin, S. Walters,
M. Papio, W. Satiyawan
The Pani Gold Project: Geology and Mineralization

C. Querubin, S. Walters, M. Papio, W. Satiyawan
The Pani Gold Project is located in the central section

of the north arm of Sulawesi, Indonesia, situated within
the township of Hulawa, district of Buntulia, regency of
Pohowatu, province of Gorontalo.
The morphology within the area is typified by NE to NW
trending ridges converging towards a central NW-SE
oriented massif. Gunung Pani is viewed as a northeast
trending ridge emanating from the central portion of this
massif.
Within the region, underlying Lower Miocene units are
capped by sub-aerial rhyodacitic volcanics, which were later
intruded by a Pliocene flow dome complex. Multi-phase
emplacement of felsic magma in Pani is inferred to have
been localized by Pliocene back-arc extensional rifting.
The main lithologies within Pani comprise porphyritic
to banded rhyodacites, lapilli tuffs, and fragmentals.
Silicification is the type of alteration commonly observed
and is exemplified by pervasive silica replacement of the
rhyodacite groundmass. Pyroclastic units are generally
argillized whereas heterolithologic volcanic breccias and
porphyritic rhyodacites within the lower sections in the
dome complex are mostly chloritized.
Mineralization is strongly influenced by structural controls
(i.e., extensional fractures) as well as by lithology (i.e., silica-
sericite altered porphyritic rhyodacites and pyroclastics,
breccia fill, quartz-adularia-limonite veins, or disseminations
in permeable volcanic lithologies and contacts).
Concentric fractures rimming a 4 km wide diatreme towards
the NW are assumed to represent sites most favourable for
mineralization, especially at their intersections with district
scale faults.
1. ???
2. ???? Corresponding author: ???

78 l Tectonics and Metallogeny of Mainland Southeast Asia – Framework for New Discovery Neal Reynolds
Opportunities
Tectonics and Metallogeny of Mainland Southeast Asia

– Framework for New Discovery Opportunities
Neal Reynolds
The mineral industry of mainland Southeast Asia is From the Neoproterozoic into the Early Proterozoic,
underdeveloped and its mineral potential remains largely Southeast Asia was located on the northern Gondwana
unrealised and generally not well understood. This reflects a margin in the region of northern Australia. Mineral
range of factors from geological to historical and
political. The present day operating and investment
environment remains challenging in most
jurisdictions; investment in exploration should
minimise exploration risk through optimised
understanding of metallogeny and discovery
opportunities.
Southeast Asian metallogeny is intimately related
to the long and complex history of accretion of
Gondwanan terranes that formed the eastern part
of the Asian continent. Due to substantial recent
improvements in understanding, a metallogenic
approach incorporating tectonic models and time-
space reconstruction can provide a framework for
regional- to belt-scale metallogenic targeting and a
context for project assessment. Although significant
uncertainties still exist, this understanding of
metallogenic provinces can point to high priority
areas with potential for new discoveries.
The collage of cratonic and accretionary terranes
that comprise Southeast Asia was derived from
Gondwana in the Palaeozoic and amalgamated
in the Mesozoic during Asian accretion. The
Cathaysian terranes of South China and Indochina
separated from Gondwana in the Early Palaeozoic,
while the Sibumasu terranes separated in the
early Permian. The Indochina and Sibumasu
terranes are separated by accretionary arc belts
developed on the active margin of Indochina from
the Carboniferous to the Triassic. The Triassic to
Jurassic Indosinian orogeny saw amalgamation
of these terranes, together with North China
and Tarim which accreted with Siberia across
the Mongolian arc terranes forming the present
day Asian continent. Post-Indosinian evolution
of Southeast Asia reflects the development
of fringing arcs, arc collision events, and the
Cainozoic collision with India that had extensive Figure 1: Summary terrane map of mainland Southeast Asia showing location of
far-field effects across the region. significant mineral deposits.
1. CSA Global, Perth, WA Corresponding author: neal.reynolds@csaglobal.com

79 l Tectonics and Metallogeny of Mainland Southeast Asia – Framework for New Discovery Neal Reynolds
Opportunities
systems in the Early Palaeozoic include Irish-type zinc- A-type in a continental arc setting and was associated with
lead-silver and polymetallic VHMS in the Late Cambrian an evolving range of mineral systems including epithermal
to Early Ordovician of the Sibumasu terrane, and Irish- gold, intrusive-related gold, porphyry and skarn copper-
type and SHMS zinc-lead in the Devonian of the South gold, carbonate-replacement zinc-lead-silver, sediment-
China terrane. SHMS zinc-lead mineral systems are also hosted gold, and tin- and tungsten-polymetallic skarns and
associated with rift and drift of Sibumasu from Gondwana greisens.
in the Carboniferous. On the western Sibumasu margin, a second Late Cretaceous
The Late Carboniferous to Triassic saw development and phase of tin-tungsten mineralisation in the southeast Asian
accretion of arc and back-arc belts fringing the Indochina tin-tungsten belt is associated with A-type magmatism in
block. This is the most important metallogenic period in the Late Cretaceous. Porphyry copper-gold and epithermal
Southeast Asia with a range of mineral systems including systems developed in the central Myanmar arc belt in the
VHMS, porphyry and skarn copper-gold, iron skarn, Oligocene to Miocene with sediment-hosted gold systems
epithermal gold, and sediment-hosted gold. in the back-arc in the Mio-Pliocene.
Indosinian orogenic gold is best seen in the Raub-Bentong Reactivation of old subduction zones in response to Indian
zone of Malaysia. The culmination of the Indosinian collision saw development of Eocene to Miocene porphyry
orogeny in the Late Triassic saw development of the first copper and epithermal mineral systems, especially in a belt
phase of the Southeast Asian tin-tungsten belt related to from western Yunnan into Vietnam.
late orogenic granites. The range of mineral systems in mainland Southeast Asia
Re-initiation of subduction outboard of the collision is broad and reflects the diverse and complex tectonic
zones occurred along the western Sibumasu margin and history of the region. The more-developed mining industry
eastern Indochina-South China margin in the Late Triassic in contiguous belts in neighbouring southwest and south
to Jurassic. In South China and Indochina, Jurassic- China provides a good indication of the remaining potential
Cretaceous ‘Yanshanian’ magmatism evolved from I-type to for discovery in Southeast Asia.

80 l Age and O, Hf Isotope Systematics of the Yandera Porphyry Rocks - Constraints on Magma M. P. Roberts, R. A. Armstrong
Sources, Crystallisation History and Crustal Evolution
Age and O, Hf Isotope Systematics of the Yandera

Porphyry Rocks - Constraints on Magma Sources,
Crystallisation History and Crustal Evolution
M. P. Roberts1 and R. A. Armstrong2
The Yandera Cu-Mo-(Au) porphyry deposit located on came from fresh core and surface exposures. It is worth
the northern flanks of Mount Wilhelm in the Papua New pointing out that zircon chemistry is unaffected by surficial
Guinean highlands is well-known (Figure 1). Exploration weathering processing and hence there is no prerequisite
has been more or less on-going since ca 1965 and results for fresh material although any contamination must be
covering such issues as structure and mineralisation have stringently avoided. Whole rock major and trace element
been published (Titley, 1978; Watmuff, 1978). Age dating analysis was also carried out on the fresh material as well as
using 1970s state-of-the-art Rb-Sr & Ar-Ar have also detailed petrology.
been of great help in unravelling the relationship between
porphyry intrusions and country rock as well as the thermal The Yandera deposit is currently in advanced stages of
effects on the latter (Page, 1976). In working with the exploration in the hands of Marengo Mining Limited with
Yandera porphyry rocks different companies have developed first production scheduled for 2016. The current resource
complex lithological classifications to deal with things such comprises ca 5.2 billion Ibs Cu, 140 million Ibs Mo
as bodies of breccia, rocks that look very similar to one and 1.1 million oz Au. Chalcopyrite and bornite are the
another, contradictory cross-cutting relationships, textural principal Cu-bearing species and molybdenite for Mo. The
variation and changes in mineralogy from the hydrothermal mineralisation occurs in well-defined structural domains
effects of overprinting mineralisation. Add to this the along which the effects of alteration have been concentrated,
complexities from intrusion and crystallisation in an active and in certain areas within bodies of breccia. The importance
structure, and the problems
with lithological assignment
are obvious.
In an effort to better define
classification of the porphyry
suite, an U-Pb zircon dating
study using SHRIMP
was undertaken. This was
later extended to include
Lu-Hf and O isotopes.
The results of the dating
and Hf-O isotope analysis
and their petrogenetic and
tectonic implications are
presented here. It should
be pointed out that this is
work in progress and one
of a plethora of different
investigations currently
underway.
A suite of samples was
collected covering the
principal lithologies defined
in the classifications
under test. These samples Figure 1. Location of the Yandera deposit relative to other noteworthy deposits in Papua New Guinea.
1. Principal Geologist, Marengo Mining (Australia) Limited, 9 Havelock Street, West Perth, Australia Corresponding author: MalcolmR@marengomining.com
2 RSES, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia

of ground preparation for mineralisation cannot be over-

emphasised and are part of ongoing research and modelling.
The country rock for the Yandera deposit is the Bismarck
Intrusive Complex, the most prominent member of which
is a typical equigranular calc-alkaline I-type granodiorite
with biotite and hornblende as its mafic minerals; some
microgranular enclaves are present. An U-Pb zircon age of
10.42 Ma was obtained and no older inherited components
were found in zircons from this rock.
In contrast, U-Pb zircon ages from the Yandera porphyries
are younger and define 3 groups spanning 7.1 to 6.3 Ma.
The first group has ages between ca 7.1 to 6.9 Ma and are
“equigranular” porphyries (plagioclase-phyric granodiorite)
and one body of diorite, which may be an enclave from
one of these contemporary granitoids. One sample hosts
dessiminated chalcopyrite and may be evidence for an early
stage of mineralising porphyry intrusion. The second group
fall at ca 6.6 Ma and make up the bulk of the rock types
sampled. These rocks cover a wide range of textural types
from relatively equigranular porphyries (mistakenly assigned
to the earlier phase in previous classification schemes) to
quartz-phyric leucodacites. The former type have been found
Figure 2. InitialeHf vs d18O for the Yandera 1st and 2nd intrusive
to underlay and form the matrix to some bodies of breccia.
event rocks. Also included are the Hf and O isotopic compositions of zircons
The youngest suite of dacitic porphyries have fragmental from Ok Tedi porphyries taken from Van Dongen et al. (2010) - data
textures and date at ca 6.4 Ma. These rocks are cross-cut shown are those with intrusive ages and not Proterozoic inherited cores.
by mineralisation the age of which is unconstrained as
yet. It is worth noting that no appreciably older inherited
components apart from one Mesozoic age were found in
zircons from these rocks.
also indicating Proterozoic contributions to rock formation.
The major and trace element geochemistry of the These authors suggest that the Markham Valley represents
porphyries show that these, like their country rock host, a major structural break separating older craton from newly
are typical calc-alkaline I-type granitoids. However, the accreted crust. The new data from the Yandera rocks dispute
younger group appear to have more tholeiitic chemistry. this and point to the break as lying to the south of the
Overall, all of the porphyries are adakitic and there is a Bismarck range along the Bismarck fault.
broad increase in Sr/Y ratio from oldest to youngest within
Timing of the Yandera magmatism appears to be at a similar
the porphyry suite. The reason for this is unclear and may
age as the collision of the Ontong Java plateau with the
be due to any number of petrogenetic processes operating
Solomon Islands Arc postulated at ca 6 Ma (Petterson et
in the source region. The Lu-Hf and O isotopic analysis
al., 1997). This collision event could have caused the switch
by SHRIMP, on the same spots in the zircons from which
in motion sense of top to the SE to top to the NW along
the ages were obtained, point to this source region as
the Ramu-Markham and adjacent faults. A change in plate
being juvenile, mantle-like in characteristic with a tight
motion direction would cause the regional realignment
dispersion of eHf values and a looser mantle-like cluster
of the stress field leading to rotation and dilation of pre-
for dO18. This feature of the O isotopes is most probably
existing structures, which are apparent from regional
attributable to interaction with meteoric water in some
magnetic data over the Papua New Guinean highlands.
cases and surficial weathering in others.
These in turn could have formed the focus of magmatism
Comparison of the Lu-Hf and O isotopes of the Yandera and associated hydrothermal activity, and must have
porphyries with those of the Ok Tedi Cu-Au deposit extended to lower crust - mantle depth to produce magmas
(Figure 2) (data from Van Dongen et al., 2010) show that of the type evidenced at the surface.
the latter has a much greater crustal contribution and
old inherited ages indicating that the source region for
the Ok Tedi magmas was very different to that for the
Acknowledgements
Yandera rocks. Crustal composition, thickness and depth This abstract represents part of a technical paper in
to melting are important contributing factors to the metal preparation. It forms one of a number of different research
budget observed at or near surface in porphyry systems. avenues currently underway and would not have got to this
Van Wyck & Williams (2002) present U-Pb zircon data stage without input from the team of geologists currently or
from the Omung metamorphics and Goroka formation previously involved at Yandera - they are many.

References Van Dongen, M, Weinberg, RE, Tomkins, AG, Armstrong, RA, and
Woodhead, JD, 2010. Recycling of Proterozoic crust in Pleistocene
juvenile magmas and rapid formation of the Ok Tedi porphyry Cu-Au
Page, RW, 1976. Geochronology of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks in deposit, Papua New Guinea. Lithos, Volume 114: pp. 282-292.
the New Guinea Highlands. Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology and
Geophysics. Report No: 162,117pp. Van Wyck, N, and Williams, IS, 2002. Age and provenance of basement
metasediments from the Kubor and Bena Bena blocks, central
Petterson, MG, Neal, CR, Mahoney, JJ, Kroenke, LW, Saunders, AD, Highlands, Papua New Guinea: constraints on the tectonic evolution
Babbs, TL, Duncan, RA, Tolia, D and McGrail, B, 1997. Structure and of the northern Australian cratonic margin. Australian Journal of Earth
deformation of north and central Malaita, Solomon Islands: tectonic Science. Volume 49: pp. 565-577.
implications for the Ontong Java Plateau-Solomon arc collision, and the
fate of oceanic plateaus. Tectonophysics, Volume 283: pp. 1-33 Watmuff, G, 1978. Geology and alteration-mineralisation zoning in the
central portion of the Yandera porphyry copper prospect, Papua New
Titley, SR, Fleming, AW, Neale, TI, 1978. Tectonic evolution of the Guinea. Economic Geology, Volume 73: pp. 829-856.
porphyry copper system at Yandera, Papua New Guinea. Economic
Geology, Volume 73: pp. 810-828.

83 l Field Portable XRF – Good Techniques to Avoid Bad and Ugly Analyses. Stephen Sugden
Field Portable XRF – Good Techniques to Avoid Bad and

Ugly Analyses
Stephen Sugden
Field portable XRF (FP-XRF) instruments are a rapidly which are optimised for different suites of elements and
maturing technology which is revolutionising the concentration ranges (e.g. soil and mining) and some
exploration and exploitation of mineral deposits. The modes are not suitable for the analysis of geological
instruments offer a number of significant advantages to the samples (e.g. Alloy). The user therefore needs to select
geologist including: the mode/s most appropriate to their situation. Again
• Real-time, non destructive analysis in the field, reducing reduced accuracy and precision will be seen if an
analysis turnaround times. inappropriate mode is used.
• Integration of the instrument with GPS, mobile GIS A further consideration is compliance. The Table 1 checklist
devices and geochemical EDA packages such as ioGAS, of the recently released 2012 JORC code now specifically
enabling fast efficient interpretation of the analyses. mentions FP-XRF instruments, their calibration and reading
parameters. Should analyses be released to the market then
• Results of interest and interpretations can be supporting discussion, detailing the underlying instrument
immediately acted upon, enabling program decision set-up and analysis methodology will be required under the
points to be brought forward. new “if not, why not” reporting requirements of the code.
• Screening of samples to reduce analysis costs and Many of these limitations however can be mitigated by
prioritisation of shipment to remote laboratories. completing a test and optimisation program to improve the
• The potential to undertake real time alteration and accuracy and precision of the analyses and so demonstrate to
lithological mapping. the recipients of the analyses and regulatory bodies that they
are “fit for purpose”.
To realise these benefits it is critical that users understand
the limitations of FP-XRF instruments. These include: A typical test and optimisation program, used by ioGlobal,
detailing issues to be considered is described below.
• Not all elements can be analysed, for example Na, while
other light atomic mass elements such as Mg and Al may 1. Selection and preparation of samples and/or standard
not be analysable on all instruments. reference materials for analysis.
• Analysis of some elements can be problematic due to • Sample homogeneity. More homogenous samples
spectral interferences. For example Fe with Co and Pb will give more consistent results. The area measured
with As. by the instrument is around 1cm2 and the depth of
• Limits of detection are often significantly higher penetration is generally limited to the surface for all
compared to laboratory analyses. Depending on the except the lightest sample matrices. Biases therefore
instrument, detection limits for chalcophile elements will result when analysing materials that are coarse
such as Cu range between 5-30ppm, while lithophile grained and pulverising to produce a homogenous
elements such as K and Al range between 30ppm->1%. fine grained sample for analysis is almost always
necessary.
• The accuracy and precision of analyses are generally
lower compared to laboratory analyses. It is rare that • Short cuts at this stage are the greatest source of
accurate readings are obtained without the application error in FP-XRF analyses and ioGlobal considers
of calibration factors and reduced precision will be seen, good sample preparation to be a critical component
depending on the degree of preparation undertaken. in generating quality analyses and robust instrument
calibrations.
• Reductions in accuracy and precision are compounded by
poor practises (e.g. short reading times and inadequate • Moisture content. Generally automatically corrected
sample preparation). for by the instrument unless present in significant
amounts. However moisture can cause dilution of
• Instruments have a number of modes of operation
1. Principal Consultant, ioGlobal Pty Ltd, 369 Newcastle Street Northbridge, WA 6003 Australia. Corresponding author: steve.sugden@ioglobal.net

84 l Field Portable XRF – Good Techniques to Avoid Bad and Ugly Analyses. Stephen Sugden
results and impedes the ability to properly prepare analyses are then compared to the certified value and
samples. Laboratories always dry samples before ideally should be the same.
analysis, so differences will be seen between field • If there is an observed bias and the analyses have a
assays and check laboratory analyses when moisture suitable precision then a custom calibration factor
is present. may be calculated to improve accuracy.
2. Precision Assessment and Optimisation. 5. Custom Calibration Factor Calculation.
• Instrument read time. XRF instruments measure the • Custom calibrations can be calculated by plotting
energy (KeV) and intensity (Counts/Second) of the either
secondary X-ray Fluorescence produced as a result
of striking the sample with high energy X-rays. The - a group of samples which have been analysed
energy emitted is characteristic for each element. As both by the FP-XRF instrument and a laboratory,
the intensity of the energy is measured in counts/ using a total or near total analysis method,
second, longer read times will generate a larger - or a set of standards which have been analysed
sampling set improving the ability to better resolve using the FP-XRF.
the energy spectrum produced, resulting in better • The paired results are plotted on a scatter plot and
precision and the ability (within limits) to analyse to a line of best fit calculated which is forced through
lower concentrations. the origin. The slope of the line (correction factor)
• Trials undertaken by ioGlobal have found that is applied to the FP-XRF data to derive a corrected
increasing read times often has the greatest impact in value.
generating interpretable data. 6. Sample Packaging Signal Attenuation and
• Precision is assessed by analysing paired samples Contamination Assessment.
at different reading times and assessing the relative • Analysis of samples through plastic, fabric or paper
differences of the sample pairs. bags, can impact on the accuracy of results and
3. Detection Limit Assessment. potentially introduce contaminants. Once the effect
has been quantified then appropriate corrections can
• The paired data is assessed using the detection limit
be applied to improve the ultimate accuracy of the
calculation routine in ioGAS.
analyses.
• Ideally the majority of values for the elements of
• It has been noted (Innov-X 2010) that analysis
interest should be above the calculated detection limit
through thin plastic bags can result in Cr, Ba and V
and low enough that true background or grade cut off
values being lower by 20-30%. Test work by ioGlobal
values can reliably be determined.
has also shown that for light atomic elements,
• Should the detection limits not be suitable by either analysing through plastic can degrade results by over
criterion, then reanalysis using longer reading times 90%. Paper packets can also attenuate analyses and
should be made. introduce contamination, for example Ti from paper
• It may not be possible to achieve suitable detection whiteners. It has also been reported that some paper
limits in which case the FP-XRF instrument analyses sample packets have high S contents.
may not be “fit for purpose”. • To assess the effect of the packaging on accuracy, a
4. Accuracy and Bias Assessment. series of samples are analysed in their packaging and
by the laboratory.
• A selection of standards are analysed which:
• Contaminant assessment is made by analysing a
- cover the expected grade range, blank and noting if any contaminant elements are
- have a similar sample matrix to the samples being present. If the contaminant is an element of interest
routinely analysed, then a different packing material should be assessed
- are certified by a total analysis method for the to find a suitable replacement.
elements of interest and
- have concentrations for the elements of interest
References:
above the limits of detection limits previously Joint Ore Reserves Committee (2012). Australian Code for Reporting of
Exploration Resullts, Mineral Resources and Ore Reserves. (The JORC
determined. Code 2012 Edition).
• Each standard should be analysed a number of times, Innov-X Systems (2010). User Manual, Delta Family: Hand Held XRF
using the reading time previously determined. The Analyisers.

85 l A Lithocap in the Bujang Prospect, Jambi Province: Related or not Related Erric Sukmawan, Yosafat Palty Yudhistira
to the Porphyry Cu – Au Mineralisation System Simanjuntak, Wanda Ilham Dani,
Rusiana Permana, Bronto Sutopo
A Lithocap in the Bujang Prospect, Jambi Province:

Related or not Related to the Porphyry Cu – Au
Mineralisation System
Erric Sukmawan1, Yosafat Palty Yudhistira Simanjuntak1, Wanda Ilham Dani1, Rusiana Permana1 and Bronto Sutopo1
The Bujang prospect is an island arc setting located in the understanding of the projects deposits systems, especially
Southwest corner of Jambi Province in the Sunda Banda to interpret vector towards higher temperature zone of the
archipelago of Indonesia. The prospect is hosted in middle systems and towards the proximal zone of the mineralisation.
Tertiary volcanic and intrusive rocks within the Great The host rocks are completely altered to advanced argillic
Sumatran Fault Zone. Locally, sequence of andesitic dacitic and silicic alteration (lithocap) while low temperature, near
volcanic and volcaniclastics breccias was cut by hydrothermal neutral argillic is in the peripheral area. Lithocap in Bujang
and phreatomagmatic breccias. Prospect is dominated by acid alteration minerals formed
Lithocaps exhibit heterogeneous distributions of mineral in high temperatures such as alunite, pyrophyllite, kaolinite,
assemblages with each mineral showing a distinctive type dickite, diaspore. Four alteration zones lineated by these
of mineral deposition style. In Bujang Prospect, Jambi minerals, i.e., vuggy silica, advanced argillic, intermediate
Province, the presence of massive-vuggy quartz indicates argillic dan sericitic zone hosted in andesitic to dacitic
the development of epithermal - high sulphidation systems. volcanic rocks and breccias. Hydrothermal breccia is one
This indication was followed by alteration mapping using of the most intense mineralized host rocks that relate
short wavelength infrared (SWIR) reflectance spectroscopy to high grade of Au, while phreatomagmatic breccia is
methods that allows rapid identification of clay minerals related to high temperature pyrophyllite alteration that
which involves some key characteristics of these clays such content juvenile-magmatic origin clast. Petrographic and
as crystallinity and wavelength peak. This leads to a better mineragraphic studies of some selected mineralised host
Figure 1.
1. PT. Aneka Tambang Tbk.- Unit Geomin, Jl. Pemuda No.1, Jakarta Timur Telp. 021-4755380, Fax. 021-4759860 Corresponding author: erric.sukmawan@antam.com

86 l A Lithocap in the Bujang Prospect, Jambi Province: Related or not Related Erric Sukmawan, Yosafat Palty Yudhistira
to the Porphyry Cu – Au Mineralisation System Simanjuntak, Wanda Ilham Dani,
Rusiana Permana, Bronto Sutopo
rock shows the presence of enargite, pyrite and covellite several signatures where high resistivity is related to silicic
associated with massive/vuggy silica. High grade Au is alteration while low chargeability is barren, low sulfide
associated with partialy oxide rock that produces minerals content. First scout drilling in Bujang Prospect shows several
such as jarosite, hematite and goethite. Advanced argillic mineral assemblages including pyrophyllite – paragonite,
zone associated with topaz showing the possibility of illite – smectite and kaolinite – smectite. These assemblages
porphyry – related high sulphidation systems and then correlate with geophysics results, resistivity and chargeability,
confirmed by the evaluation of several parameters, such as where each assemblages reflects certain colour in resistivity
alunite wavelength peak and high magnetic anomaly in and chargeability sections.
the center of Bujang Prospect. The identification of clay
minerals in the surface by short wave length infra-red Two high magnetic anomalies (± 600 m width) that have
(SWIR) reflectance spectroscopy analysis shows alunite a top of about 300 m below the surface were interpreted as
wavelength peak shifting from 1475 nm and reaching intrusions that may host porphyry Cu systems in the center
1494.48 nm near JR 1 hill. Recent studies shows that the of Bujang diatreme complex. Further data and analysis
alunite wavelength peak shifts towards longer wavelength from alteration mapping and test drilling will help with the
when it gets closer to the intrusive center (Arribas et al., understanding whether the high sulphidation systems in
1995). Geophysics surveys in the Bujang lithocap shows Bujang Prospect related to porphyry Au-Cu or not.

87 l Hydrothermal Alteration Study In Tertiary Volcanism Ayah Area, Southern Central Java Adi Sulaksono, Muhammad A.
poster Luthan, Putu A. Andhira
Hydrothermal Alteration Study in Tertiary Volcanism

Ayah Area, Southern Central Java
Adi Sulaksono1 ,†, Muhammad A. Luthan1, and Putu A. Andhira2
The Ayah Area is located in Kebumen

Regency, Southern Central Java as a part of
the Tertiary volcanism site in Sunda arc ( Java
Island) Indonesia. Observations based on the
aerial photographs show that more than 60%
of the research area is volcanic terrain that
controlled by geological structure indications
with NW-SE relative trending. This situation
becomes important because in many cases,
hydrothermal alteration is mostly controlled by
volcanic activity and geological structures. Many
epithermal deposits are regionally associated
with volcanic-related structures (Rytuba, 1981).
Stratigraphically, the research area is composed
by Late Oligocene – Early Miocene andesite
intrusive unit as a feeder of paleovolcanism, Late
Oligocene – Early Miocene volcanic breccia
unit of Gabon Formation and disconformity
Middle Miocene limestone unit of Kalipucang
Formation (Asikin, 1994). Structural control
of the research area such as NW-SE strike slip
faults and joints (including sheeting joints in
the intrusive rocks). In this condition, the role
of joints is very important as the porous zone in
hydrothermal system that cause strongly altered
andesite. Some of faults are important as the
pathways or porous zones for hydrothermal
fluids that affect the pattern of alteration and
alteration zoning. Several locations showed
that along the river (fault zone) is the strongly
altered rocks.
The geological heritage of paleovolcanism
is shown by the presence of volcanic activity
products, include: intrusive rocks (andesite and
basalt), vent breccia, andesitic lava, tuff breccia, Figure 1. Surface alteration map (A) and cross-section (B) of the Ayah
lapilli tuff, laharic breccia, and pebbly sandstone. Referring to area, Kebumen Regency, southern Central Java.
the volcanic depositional environment scheme by Bogie and
Mackenzie (1998), Ayah area is the central to distal facies of a hosted deposits typically occurring with effusive or pyroclastic
paleovolcanic system. This setting becomes interesting because rocks (Sillitoe and Bonham, 1984). The end of Tertiary
the character of volcanic settings which host epithermal volcanic activity showed by Middle Miocene carbonate rocks
deposits is most commonly central to proximal, with volcanic- of Kalipucang Formation. Because it was occurred after
1 Student of University of Pembangunan Nasional ”Veteran” Yogyakarta

2 Student of Padjajaran University
† Author and presenter of poster

88 l Hydrothermal Alteration Study In Tertiary Volcanism Ayah Area, Southern Central Java Adi Sulaksono, Muhammad A.
Luthan, Putu A. Andhira
the Tertiary volcanism activity, disconformity Kalipucang textures including: crustiform, banded, massive chalcedonic,
Formation is a barren zone. vuggy quartz, sugary texture, and comb structure. Vein type
Evaluation based on hand specimen observations, mineralization associated with pervasive alteration of this
petrographic analysis, and powder X-Ray diffraction analysis type. In some locations, the pattern and distribution of this
of some Gabon Formation’s altered rock samples show alteration zone is controlled by strike slip fault. The presence
three hydrotermal alteration types (refer to Thomson and of advanced argillic alteration type is overprinting on the
Thomson (1996)); chlorite - calcite ± epidote ± pyrite zone argillic zone. This alteration is characterized by the mineral
(propylitic type), quartz - montmorillonite ± sericite ± pyrite assemblage: kaolin - alunite - cristobalite. The origin of
zone (argillic type), and kaolin - alunite - cristobalite zone alunite or this acid-sulfate alteration is formed by atmospheric
(advanced argillic type). oxidation of H2S in the vadose zone over the water table,
The outcrops of propylitic type is characterized by green to associated with fumarolic discharge of vapor released by
gray color. In the Ayah area, this altered rock zone has more deeper boiling fluids (steam-heated) (refer to Bethke (1984)
extensive coverage than other types (> 60%). Based on field and Rye et al. (1992)). In the other hand, the presence
interpretation the propylitic zone is located on the outside of boulder vuggy silica at the surface of the research area
of argillic zone. The argillic type is characterized by the confirms that there is an involvement of acidic hydrothermal
presence of stockwork zones and quartz vein that show some condition that also forms advanced argillic type.

89 l Cirianiu Epithermal Au, Vanua Levu, Fiji Geoff Taylor, Greg Corbett,
Grace Cumming
Cirianiu Epithermal Au, Vanua Levu, Fiji

Geoff Taylor, Greg Corbett and Grace Cumming
Introduction Detailed Geology

Fiji is an isolated nation in the South Pacific Ocean The stratigraphy at Cirianiu has been divided into four
approximately 3,000 kilometers north east of Australia. recognizable units including: The Upper Sandstone Package,
Vanua Levu is the second larger of the two major islands. The Upper Qiriyaga, The Lower Qiriyaga and Lower
North east Vanua Levu hosts a number of polymetallic Sandstone Package. Although most prominent in the Upper
and Au occurrences localized within a 15 km long graben Quiriyaga Unit, allochthonous limestone blocks occur
formed by extension along the Nubu Fault, which is a erratically throughout the sequence. The Upper Qiriyaga
major north east trending basement structure. The Cirianiu is dominated by lithic fiamme tuffs and breccias passing
prospect which lies in the center of the graben comprises downwards to the Lower Qiriyaga boulder breccias and
low sulphidation epithermal Au mineralization currently andesite fiamme breccia. A massive flat lying feldspar phyric
under investigation by Kalo Exploration. Previous explorers andesite sill has gradational contacts into fractured andesite
used vertical drilling to evaluate a model based upon flat and in situ and clast rotated andesitic breccias. Hydrothermal
lying replacement mineralization,
whereas steep faults are now
interpreted to have introduced
mineralization which has been
remobilized into a flat lying
supergene blanket.
Geological Setting
The coalesced Mio-Pliocene
volcanic fields which make up
north eastern Vanua Levu are cut
by the NE trending Nasavu and
Nubu Faults formed as arc-parallel
graben bounding faults. At Cirianiu
NNE trending dilatant fractures
have developed by a component
of sinistral strike-slip movement
during extension on the Nubu
Fault. The volcanic vents erupted
above and below sea level and were
accompanied by the resedimentation
of volcanic facies in a shallow
marine environment. Large volume
explosive eruptions are probably
related to caldera collapse. A period
quiescence followed evidenced
by the deposition of fine grained Figure 1. Cross section 500N showing the development of high grade supergene Au overlying feeder
sedimentary facies. structures. Note the exact dip on these structures remains unknown.
1. Geoff Taylor, Consultant, Savusavu, Fiji. Corresponding author: geofftaylor@connect.com.fj

2. Greg Corbett, Consultant, Sydney, Australia
3. Grace Cumming, Consultant, Hobart, Australia

90 l Cirianiu Epithermal Au, Vanua Levu, Fiji Geoff Taylor, Greg Corbett,
Grace Cumming
breccias are fault related, steep dipping and flare upwards as

funnels. The main hydrothermal breccia, the 17 breccia occurs
Supergene Gold Enrichment
on the F1 fault and parallel faults F1, F2, F3 and F4 all host Significant supergene Au enrichment has concentrated
supergene enriched high grade gold mineralization. collapsing down steep dipping faults and breccias to
concentrate at the base of oxidation by both chemical and
Alteration mechanical processes. The Ag: Au ratio is lower within
supergene ores and displays a higher Au fineness than the
Argillic alteration, illite-chlorite with variable silica
pervasively floods the permeable volcanic and volcaniclastic hypogene mineralisation. Significant drill hole intersections
rocks and commonly reduces the rock competency. in this zone of supergene enrichment include 86.0m @
Manganese is common and occurs as mounds and 5.19g/t gold including 6.75m @ 37.8g/t gold and up to 2m
pervades the mudstones and fiamme tuffs and breccias. @ 102g/t gold.
Silicification associated with argillic alteration floods
along the flat bedded fracture planes and most importantly The Model
as intense silicification within the silica injection phase
• Dilatant structures localize ore zones and are best
of the breccia pipes. The intense silicification makes the
recognized by northerly flexures within the major north
host rocks competent and amenable to cracking during
Au mineralization. The silicified bedded sediments and east trending graben.
coral clasts suggest this silicification has been formed by • Parallel near vertical faults, F1, F2, F3 and F4 localize
replacement of limestone and carbonate breccias. Inner the ore bearing fluids and provide conduits for Au
propylitic alteration recognized as epidote veins and outer mineralization.
propylitic as chlorite-carbonate on the margins of the
• Both flat bedded silicification and fracture controlled
alteration system, are indicative of intrusion activity.
silicification allow mineralizing fluids to crack the
competent hosts and contain higher Au grades.
Mineralisation
• Significant supergene Au enrichment occurs at the base
Low grade Au mineralisation with hypogene grades of < 1.0 of oxidation and above the water table in these funnels.
g/t Au occurs within pyritic illite altered breccias. It is mostly
of the low sulphidation epithermal quartz - sulphide Au • The supergene high Au grade zones can contain
style. Gold is contained within the coarse cubic pyrite. The exploitable heap leachable Au on the parallel structures
low grade ore is similar to Round Mountain (Nevada) style and could represent a mineable gold resource.
Au deposits and is amenable to heap leaching. Higher Au • Hypogene carbonate-base metal Au and quartz-sulphide
grades occur on faults at depth within more competent host Au mineralization has not been fully explored and low
rocks. Carbonate base metal Au mineralisation contains low temperature sphalerite here indicates possible bonanza
temperature yellow sphalerite, galena and minor chalcopyrite gold at higher levels of a poorly eroded hydrothermal
which formed by the mixing of ore fluids with bicarbonate system.
waters at low temperatures. Primary bonanza Au grades have
not been recognized yet, but could develop in the cooler • I.P. and resistivity surveys are likely to indicate
portions of the poorly eroded hydrothermal system. coincident anomalies as drillable targets.

91 l Resource Estimation for the Aurukun Bauxite Deposit Andrew J. Vigar, Ian Taylor, Greg
MacDonald
Resource Estimation for the Aurukun Bauxite Deposit

Andrew J Vigar, Ian Taylor, Greg MacDonald
The resource estimation of lateritic deposits, such as Interpretation of the stratigraphy was conducted on a hole
Aurukun, presents specific issues related to the lateral by hole basis with definition of the zone layering based
changes in thickness and elevation of the various horizontal on stratigraphy, geochemistry and mineralogy. The zone
layers (or zones) within the deposit where the x and y boundaries were then modelled as 3D surfaces and used to
dimensions are orders of magnitude greater than the z constrain a block model.
dimension. The objective was to develop a three dimensional
The block model estimation used the Ordinary Kriging
(3D) block model that retained the vertical and lateral
method, with the estimation done in unfolded space and
variation inherent in deposits of this type to allow full
then refolded, therefore maintaining the zones irrespective
optimisation of the production plan without prior selection
of thickness or orientation. The unfolding process converts
of an economic portion (enriched bauxite layers) of the
the real-world positions for both blocks and informing
profile at the resource estimation stage.
samples to a scaled position relative to the roof and floor of
The Aurukun bauxite deposit was held by Chalco Australia each zone.
Pty Ltd (Chalco) until it withdrew from the agreement
with the Queensland government in 2010 and it is now Analysis of the data and variography were also undertaken
open for tender. The deposit forms part of the world class in unfolded space. The x and y dimensions are unchanged,
Weipa bauxite province, Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, but the z dimension is a relative position. The effect of the
Australia. The bauxite is predominantly pisolitic with an upper unfolding and limits on number of samples per hole is to
boehmite-rich zone and lower gibbsite-rich zone. The bauxite “push” the informing sample search sideways but within the
consists of both in-situ and reworked domains, is overlain by stratification, rather than vertically. This honours the strong
a thin soil horizon and has kaolinite clay as a transitional base. vertical zonation within the bauxite profile.
A Portable Infrared Mineral Analyser (PIMA) was utilised The JORC code requires that the stated resource must have
on site, in additional to elemental assay, on each drill sample “reasonable prospects for economic extraction”. This is a
to determine the mineralogy, in particular levels of boehmite, qualitative rather than quantitative definition. A number
gibbsite, kaolinite and reactive silica. of selection criteria to define a resource roof and floor
As part of the scope of work, a field program was undertaken were developed in consultation with the project engineers
using large diameter Boart Longyear Sonic drilling to and owners to meet these criteria. The vertical selection of
acquire detailed density measurements across the deposit material to include in the resource highlights the variation
to allow compliance with Joint Ore Reserves Committee in the development (and destruction) of the bauxite profile
( JORC) reporting requirements. from area to area within the deposit.
1. ???
2. ???? Corresponding author: ???

92 l Developments in Microwave Digestion for Geochemical Analysis Brad Whisson
Developments in Microwave Digestion for

Geochemical Analysis
Brad Whisson1
Digestion of mineral samples in acid has traditionally been Although the technique is limited to sub-1 gram sample
regarded as a “low-tech” process, and there has been little aliquots for practical purposes, modern sample preparation
development in this field over the past 30 years, prior to the techniques reliably reduce particle size to the point where
advent of microwave digestion systems. multielement analysis can be satisfactorily performed on a
The rapid energising of molecules and consequent few tenths of a gram of sample. The sample size limitation
acceleration of chemical reactions by absorption of precludes routine analysis for gold, due to sampling and
microwave radiation has logically led to the use of detection limit constraints.
microwave heating in chemical applications such as synthesis LabWest adopted microwave assisted digestion as its
and digestion. Microwave-assisted digestion of mineral primary decomposition technique from the start, developing
samples has been developed to a usable technique over the methods that reliably catered for a wide range of geological
past decade, with several manufacturers continually refining materials, and has now analysed some 150,000 geochemical
their approaches and equipment. samples in its microwave systems. These have covered
Samples are digested in sealed, PTFE-lined, microwave- a wide range of sample types, and valuable insights to
transparent pressure vessels, and digest conditions are the strengths and potential of the technique have been
monitored via infra-red sensors and internal sensors. gained. The analytical strengths of ICP-Optical Emission
Digestions can be controlled with respect to microwave Spectrometry (ICP-OES) and ICP-Mass Spectrometry
power, vessel temperature and pressure, which enables (ICP-MS) combined with microwave-assisted digestion
achievement of reproducible digestion conditions across enable determination of most metallic elements down to low
a wide range of sample materials. Microwave-assisted detection limits.
digestion techniques have now been accepted by the Aqua-regia-based, microwave assisted digests give
scientific community in many areas, and are incorporated consistently high recoveries for base metals, readily
into various USEPA methods. decomposing sulphides and most organic matter, and
A microwave-assisted digestion will typically reach provide a cost-effective means of obtaining a wide range of
completion in one tenth of the time taken by an equivalent information for the explorer. Hydrofluoric acid (HF) based
hotplate method, which largely mitigates the capacity digests are used where total decomposition of the host rock
limitation of the equipment. The approach offers excellent matrix is necessary, and good whole-rock approximations
recoveries for most mineral matrices when compared can be achieved with these digests.
to other acid digest techniques. Microwave digestions
The ability of microwave-assisted digestion techniques to
are performed in sealed vessels at temperatures typically
achieve high recoveries of the metals that are traditionally
around 200°C and pressures of approximately 20 Bar,
harder to extract by acid digestion (eg. Hf, Nb, W, Zr, Rare-
which has technical, environmental and operational
Earths) lends itself nicely to litho-geochemical studies. A
benefits. As the oxidising power of acids generally
single digest solution can therefore be determined by combined
increases with temperature, the oxidising effect of the
ICP-OES and ICP-MS for suites of up to 63 elements,
acids is far greater in the microwave-assisted digestion
including base and trace metals, major rock-forming oxides
than in atmospheric pressure digests. Microwave
and rare-earths. This has significant cost-saving implications,
digestions are therefore very effective at decomposing
sulphides, silicates and other resistant matrices. The use and enables exploration geologists and geochemists to gather
of sealed vessels in these digestions has the additional a very detailed picture of the mineral environment in one step.
benefits of retaining volatile elements such as mercury Uranium exploration is particularly well catered for.
and germanium in the digest vessel, and preventing Microwave digestion, when coupled with ICP-MS, offers
cross-contamination from spitting. very good recoveries of the rare-earths with typical detection
1. LabWest Minerals Analysis Pty Ltd, Perth, Western Australia Corresponding author: b.whisson@labwest.net

93 l Developments in Microwave Digestion for Geochemical Analysis Brad Whisson
limits of 0.05ppm or better. Parallel analysis of standard Microwave digestion is also well suited to analysis of plant
materials against the traditional techniques shows excellent materials for trace elements. Plant materials are readily
recoveries for REEs and the more refractory elements. analysed for the full range of elements determined on
mineral samples, including gold, and the very low detection
Microwave-assisted digestion offers a well-priced alternative
limits required by geochemical exploration applications are
to alkaline fusion or XRF for whole-rock analysis. Under
achieved with ICP-Mass spectrometry.
microwave digestion conditions, appropriate acid mixtures
containing HF completely dissolve most common rock- Future research and development directions will be
forming minerals. The major oxide forming elements (Na, discussed.
K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Al, S, P, Si) are determined from low levels
(0.01%) up to high percentage levels in the rock.

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BALI 2013

EMD Geological Survey Indonesia 27-29 May 2013

• Jocelyn Thomson (Geoscientists Symposia & AIG)

• Bill Hewitt (PT PZC Services, Jakarta}

• Sandy Moyle (Goldminex Resources, Melbourne and Port Moresby)

• Priyo Pribadi (Samindo Resources, Jakarta)

• Wayne Spilsbury (Geoduck, Perth)

EMD Geological Survey Indonesia

Author title Page

Investigation of a High Sulfidation Epithermal Cu-Au Deposits Using

Malcolm G. Baillie The Ingredients of Successful Exploration 5

Kelvin Brown New Exploration Technologies 6

Petrology and Electron Microprobe Analyses in Target Generation and

The Liamu Complex of the Papuan Peninsula; regional significance for

Mark Gabbitus From Exploration to Extraction 18

Tectonic and Structural Controls to Porphyry and Epithermal

KEYNOTE: Graeme Hancock Realising the Mineral Potential of Mongolia 29

The Tombulilato Copper Gold Project in Sulawesi, Indonesia ‘Facing the

J. M. A. Hronsky Controls on High-grade Au Ore-shoots: Towards a New Paradigm 36

Ramping-up Exploration Value from Aeromagnetic Surveys

David Lawie Sorting the Signal From the Noise 44

Author title Page

Biogeochemistry and Partial Digest Techniques in Mineral Exploration

A. H. (Tony) Osman The History of Coal Development in Indonesia 73

Interpolating Assays and Physical Properties in Folded and Faulted

Erric Sukmawan,Yosafat Palty Yudhistira

Brad Whisson Developments in Microwave Digestion for Geochemical Analysis 92

Investigation of a High Sulfidation Epithermal Cu-Au

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

The Exploration, Discovery and Development of the

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

The Ingredients of Successful Exploration

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

New Exploration Technologies

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

Petrology and Electron Microprobe Analyses

Optical microscopy is a traditional technique for

1. Gnomic Exploration Services, Townsville, Qld 4810 Corresponding author: rowenaduckworth@bigpond.com

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

Nickel Laterites in SE Asia – Geology, Technology

This presentation reviews the nature and genesis of nickel

Nature of nickel laterite mineralisation

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

of natural attributes of nickel laterite deposits that, if they

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

Inversion of Magnetic Data from Remanent

Summary to the highly non-unique nature of potential field

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

no assumptions about whether source of the magnetization

The vector magnetization inverse problem is defined

where in the first line, the total objective function f is

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

(Tullemans et al. 2001). Current exploration is focussed on

Figure 7: An EW section through the recovered MVI model amplitude

Magnetization Vector Inversion of the Osborne TMI

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

East Asia: Geology, Exploration Technologies and Mines - Bali 2013

The Liamu Complex of the Papuan Peninsula; Regional