Reviewer EarthSci

WEATHERING
-is a set of physical, chemical, and biological processes that alter the physical and chemical state
of rocks and soil at or near the earth's surface.
Effects of Weathering
-Loss of atoms and molecules from weathered surfaces.
-Addition of specific atoms to the weathered surface.
-Breakdown of one mass into two or more masses.

Chemical Weathering
-Involves the alteration of the chemical composition of weathered material.
 Hydrolysis
A process that involves the reaction between mineral ions and the ions of water (OH- and H+),
and results in the decomposition of the rock surface by forming new compounds, and by
increasing the pH of the of the hydroxide ions.
 Oxidation
Chemical attachment of free oxygen to other elements and compounds. Iron-bearing silicate
minerals that undergo oxidation include the following: pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, olivine.
Rocks that contain these elements weather by oxidation into an orange color.
 Carbonation
Dissolving of calcium carbonate (limestone) in acidic groundwater
- similar to hydrolysis but all the products are ionic and there is no residue
- produces bicarbonate (HCO3), a major part of the dissolved load of most rivers
- the carbonation of limestone results in karst topography: caves, sinkholes

Physical Weathering
-Breakdown of mineral or rock material by entirely mechanical methods brought about a variety of
reasons.
 Frost Wedging
Mechanical disintegration, splitting or break up of rock by the pressure of water freezing in
cracks, crevices, pores, etc. Caused by repeated freeze-thaw cycle of water in extreme
climates.
 Exfoliation or Unloading
Expansion of rock caused by lifting and erosion. Rock breaks off into sheets along joints that
parallel surface.
 Thermal Expansion
Repeated cooling and heating of rock. Heat caused rock to expand and cooling causes rock to
contract. Looks very similar to frost wedging and salt crystal growth, but typically occurs in
climates of extreme weather changes.
  Plant Wedging
Plant roots can wedge into cracks in rocks and produce enough pressure to split them.
Chemicals produced by the roots of plants help in the chemical weathering, as enzymatic
activity digest the rock as the plant searches for nutrients in the rock.
 Biological Weathering
Animals and Plants can assist in breaking down rocks into sediment and soil.
 Soil Formation
Soil is formed from the weathering of rocks and minerals. Surface rock breaks down by
weathering and is mixed with organic material. Over time it creates a thin layer of soil.

Five Soil Forming Factors

Parent Material - The primary material from which rock is formed.
Climate- Weathering forces including heat, rain, ice snow, wind, etc.
Organism- all animals living in or on the soil. Ex: Animals living in the soil will affect how soil is
moved around and decomposition of waste materials.
Topography - the location of the soil on a landscape. Ex: Soil at the bottom of a hill will get
more water than that on the slope.
Time - The formation of soil takes year

METAMORPHISM
1. Metamorphism:
Metamorphism is a geological process that involves the transformation of existing rocks
(protoliths) into new rocks due to changes in temperature, pressure, and/or the presence of
chemically active fluids. Metamorphic processes occur deep within the Earth's crust and mantle
and result in the alteration of mineralogy, texture, and structure of rocks.
2. **Metamorphic Rocks:**
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have undergone metamorphism. They are formed from pre-
existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks) called protoliths, through the
action of heat, pressure, and/or chemically active fluids. Examples of metamorphic rocks include
marble (from limestone), schist, gneiss, slate, and quartzite.
3. **Factors Involved in Metamorphism:**
a. **Temperature:** Increased temperature facilitates the recrystallization of minerals in rocks.
Higher temperatures promote mineral growth and the development of new mineral assemblages.
b. **Pressure:** Pressure is applied in two main ways—confining pressure (uniform pressure
from all directions) and differential or directed pressure (uneven pressure from specific directions).
Pressure influences the texture and mineral alignment in metamorphic rocks.
c. **Confining Pressure:** This is the uniform pressure applied equally from all directions,
typical in deep-seated conditions. It leads to mineral reorientation and recrystallization.
 d. **Directed Pressure:** Also known as differential pressure, it occurs when pressure is
applied unequally from specific directions. This can result in the alignment of minerals, creating
foliation or banding in rocks.
4. **Hydrothermal Fluids:**
Hydrothermal fluids are hot, aqueous solutions that play a crucial role in metamorphism. They are
rich in dissolved ions and can facilitate mineral reactions, recrystallization, and the exchange of
elements between minerals. These fluids are often associated with volcanic and geothermal
activity and can contribute to the formation of various types of metamorphic rocks.
5. **Types of Metamorphism:**
a. **Regional Metamorphism:** This occurs over large areas and is associated with tectonic
processes such as mountain-building. It involves high pressure and temperature conditions,
leading to the formation of regional metamorphic belts.
b. **Contact Metamorphism:** This type occurs near igneous intrusions, where rocks are
subjected to high temperatures but not necessarily high pressure. The changes are localized
around the contact with the molten magma.
c. **Shock Metamorphism:** This results from the sudden and intense application of pressure,
often associated with meteorite impacts or nuclear explosions. It can lead to the formation of
unique mineral structures like shatter cones.
d. **Burial Metamorphism:** It occurs due to the increase in pressure and temperature as
rocks are buried deeper within the Earth's crust. It is common in sedimentary basins and
contributes to the formation of rocks like slate and schist.
e. **High-Pressure Metamorphism:** This involves extreme pressure conditions, often
associated with subduction zones. It leads to the formation of high-pressure metamorphic rocks
like blueschist and eclogite.

TYPES OF STRESSES
Tensional stress - causes rocks to be pulled apart that result to lengthening and break apart. This
type of stress can be found at divergent plate boundaries.
Compressional stress - causes rocks to fold or fracture. It squeezes rocks together.
Compression is the most common type of stress in convergent plate boundaries.
Shear stress- occur when forces slide pass each other in opposite direction which results to
slippage and translation. This is the most common stress found in transform plate boundaries.
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
Divergent - occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other.
Convergent – where crust is destroyed due to the collision of two plates.
Transform – when two plates slide past to each other.
TYPES OF FOLDING
Folding is a type of Earth movement resulting from the compression of rock because of high
temperature and pressure from the interior of Earth. Bending, curving, crumpling, or buckling of
rocks into folds are usually visible on rock strata. Folding can also happen in oceans and seas.
  Monocline - is a simple bend in the rock layers so that they are no longer horizontal.
Monocline fold is caused by compressive stress.
 Anticline - are folded rocks that arch upward and dip away from the center of the fold. The
oldest rocks are at the center of an anticline and the youngest are draped over them.
 Syncline - is a fold that bends downward, causing the youngest rocks are to be at the
center and the oldest are on the outside.

TYPES OF FAULTING
Faulting are form cracks or fractures on the rocks. The movement is caused by low temperatures
that make rocks brittle. Instead of folding, rocks break into large chunks.
 Normal Fault (Divergent) -These faults developed mainly due to the vertical movements
that occur as the rocks are pulled apart due to tensional force.
 Reverse Fault (Convergent) - are formed due to the movement of both the fractured rock
blocks towards each other.
 Transform (Strike-slip) Fault - formed when the rock blocks are displaced horizontally
along the fault plane due to horizontal movement. They are the result of Shear stresses in
the crust.

Plate Tectonic Theory – The Earth’s solid outer crust (lithosphere), is separated into plates that
move over the asthenosphere (upper portion of the mantle). The plates are classified into two
types, the oceanic and continental plates. These plates come together, spread apart, and interact
at their boundaries all over the planet. The Plate tectonic movement of the plates results in
deformation (folding and faulting) of the Earth’s crust. The different types of stress that act upon
rocks which play an important role in the movement of plates.

OCEAN BASINS
Along with the formation of seven (7) continents, ocean basins were also formed due to tectonic
forces and processes.
ocean basins were formed from volcanic rock that was released from the fissures that is located at
the mid-ocean ridges.
Pacific Ocean basin is the largest, deepest, and oldest existing ocean basin. More trenches, and
more frequent tsunamis happen here.
The second largest ocean basin is the Atlantic followed by the Indian ocean basin. The smallest of
the earth’s ocean basins is Arctic and is covered by ice.
 Through the formation of the ocean basins, different structures and features are formed.
 Continental shelf - Partly shallow extension of the continent underwater.
 Continental slope- Transition zone of continental shelf and deep ocean floor. It starts from
oceanic crust to continental crust.
 Continental rise- It is where the ocean begins. All basaltic and oceanic rocks are found
here. It is the place where the sediments from land are washed.
 Abyssal plain- The flattest part of the ocean. 50 % of the earth’s surface is being covered
by this plain.-
 Island- It’s not just a piece of land floating up in the middle of the sea, it is part of the ocean
basin that extends up from the ocean floor.
  Seamount- It is an undersea mountain. The erosion caused by waves destroyed the top of
a seamount which caused it to be flattened.
 Trench- It is the deepest part of the ocean.
 Mid-oceanic ridge- The seafloor mountain system which is situated in the middle of the
ocean basin. It is where upwelling of magma happens which causes the sea floor to spread.
Evolution of the Ocean Basin
The Wilson Cycle explains the process of the opening (beginning) and the closing (end) of an
ocean which is driven by Plate Tectonics. This process was named after the Canadian
Geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson (1908-1993).

SEAFLOOR SPREADING
- it is a geologic process in which the tectonic plates (Earth’s lithosphere) is split apart. New
regions of oceanic crust are created through upwelling of magma at the mid-ocean ridge. Seafloor
spreading occurs at the divergent plate boundaries.
SONAR - a device that bounces sound waves off underwater objects and then record the echoes
of these sound waves
In 1960, the American geophysicist, Harry Hess explained how the convection currents in the
Earth’s interior make the seafloor spread.
Seafloor Spreading Evidences
 Active fractures in the ocean floor.
 The age of seafloor rocks increases as it gets further away from the mid-ocean ridge.
 The thickness of sediments in the ocean floor increases as it gets further away from the
mid-ocean ridge.
 Patterns of symmetrical seafloor magnetism between the mid-ocean ridge.
In 1942 during the World War II, sensitive ocean magnetometers were developed by the Navy to
find submarines.
Through a process called DYNAMO EFFECT - flowing of liquid metal in the outer core of the
planet generates electric currents. The rotation of Earth on its axis causes these electric currents
to form a magnetic field which extends around the planet.
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