Earth’s Interior

 Objectives:
 1. Describe the science of
geology
 2. Describe the main layers
of Earth’s interior
 Definition: geology is the study
of planet Earth, including its
composition and structure
 Definition: uniformitarianism
is the idea that the geologic
processes that operate today
also operated in the past
• Earth can be divided into 3 main layers: the
crust, the mantle and the core
• Definition: the crust is the rocky outer layer of
Earth
• We walk on the continental crust which
contains silicates
• Definition: silicates are rocks made up of silicon
& oxygen and often contain aluminum, iron or
calcium
• Aluminum is the most abundant element in
Earth’s crust
• Two types of crust exist: continental crust
and oceanic crust
• Definition: continental crust is the rocks
that make up the continents
• The rocks are less dense like granite
• Continental crust ranges in thickness
from 8 to 75 kilometers
• Definition: oceanic crust is the rocks that
make up the ocean bottom
• Oceanic crust ranges about 7 kilometers
thick & is thin and dense compared to
continental crust
 Definition: the mantle is the layer of
Earth beneath the crust
 The mantle is thick & made of hot, solid
rock
 It is about 2850 kilometers thick
 The mantle has 3 layers: the lithosphere,
asthenosphere, and mesosphere
 The lithosphere is about 100 km thick &
consists of cool rigid rock including the
uppermost part of the mantle and the
crust
 The asthenosphere is located beneath the
lithosphere
 Is is weaker, softer rock thought to have
the consistency of bubble gum
 It is believed to flow slowly
 The mesosphere is located underneath
the asthenosphere
 The mesosphere consists of stiffer rock
 The mesosphere extends all the way
down to the upper surface of Earth’s core
• The third and final main layer of Earth is
called the core
• There are 2 parts to the core: the outer core
and the inner core
• Scientists think that the core consists of
metals, mostly nickel and some lighter
elements
• There is enormous pressure at Earth’s core
and the temperature is thought to be about
5500°C (nearly equal to sun’s surface)
• In the outer core, high temperatures keep
the metal liquid
 Because of Earth’s rotation, the
flowing iron in the outer core is
believed to create Earth’s magnetic
field
 The temperature at the inner core is
also very high but the pressure is
greater than the pressure on the outer
core
 Therefore, the inner core is believed
to be solid
 Objectives:
 1. Distinguish between
rocks and minerals
 2. Explain several properties
used to identify minerals
 Definition: a rock is a solid combination
of minerals or mineral materials
 Definition: a mineral is a naturally
occurring inorganic solid with a crystal
structure and a characteristic chemical
composition
 Definition: inorganic solids are products
of nonliving things
 Minerals are the building blocks of rocks
 Some properties of minerals include:
crystal structure, color, streak, luster,
density, hardness and fracture
 Crystal structure means that the atoms
have a specific geometric shape
 Some minerals have a characteristic
color
 Streak is the color of the mineral’s
powder
• Luster is a measure of how shiny the mineral
is & it is the way its surface reflects the light
• Density depends on the unique chemical
composition of the mineral & it is a unique
physical property of all substances
• Density is mass divided by volume
• Hardness is the resistance of the mineral to
scratching
• Hardness of minerals is measured by Mohs
Hardness Scale which runs from 1 (softest) to
10 (hardest)
• Talc or chalk is 1 and diamonds are 10
 Fracture is how the mineral breaks
 Some minerals split along a
geometric line or plane
 Some minerals have other
properties such as solubility
(ability to dissolve) in certain
substances, florescence, electrical
charge when heated, cooled or
subjected to pressure or ability to
refract light
 Objectives:
 1. Classify rocks as igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic
 2. Explain how different types of rocks
form
 3. Describe the processes by which
rocks continually change from one type
to another in the rock cycle
 Rocks are classified into 3 major groups:
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
 The classification is based on how they form
 Definition: magma is a mixture of molten rock
and gases which forms underground
 Definition: lava is magma that flows out of
volcanoes
 Igneous rock forms from magma
 Quartz is an igneous mineral but can be
found in the other rock types as a mineral
• There are 2 types of igneous rock: intrusive
and extrusive
• Intrusive igneous rock forms underground
slowly from hardened magma
• Extrusive igneous rock forms faster at Earth’s
surface
• Examples of intrusive igneous rock include
gabbro and granite
• An extrusive rock is basalt
• Some other kinds of igneous rocks include:
Obsidian (extrusive volcanic glass), Pumice, &
Rhyolite
• Definition: sediment consists of small pieces of
material that comes from rocks or living
organisms
• The basic mechanism of formation has to do with
pressure and the presence of water, weathering
and erosion
• as more and more sediments build up over time,
the deeper layers become compressed &
squeezed with dissolved minerals (usually in
water) seeping into the spaces creating the
cement that holds the layers of sediment together
• Geologists classify sedimentary rocks into 3
groups according to how they form: clastic rocks,
chemical rocks and organic rocks
 Definition: clastic rocks are sedimentary rocks
formed from broken fragments of other rocks
 Clastic rocks are held together by cement
 An example is conglomerate
 Definition: chemical rock is sedimentary rock that
form when minerals precipitate out of solution
 An example is calcium carbonate, limestone or shale
 Definition: organic rocks form from once living
organisms such as dead coral, clams, and mussels
 An example is the White Cliffs of Dover (England)
composed of chalk from dead sea organisms
 Sandstone is also a sedimentary rock
 The picture that follows shows some common
sedimentary rocks
 Definition: metamorphic rock is rock that
has been changed by temperature,
pressure or reactions with hot water
 Most metamorphic rocks form under high
temperatures and pressure deep
underground
 Slate, schist and gneiss are metamorphic
rocks that can be formed from the
sedimentary rock shale after temperature
& pressure
 Marble and Quartzite are also
metamorphic rocks
• Definition: the rock cycle is a series of
processes in which rocks continuously
change from one type to another
• In the rock cycle, forces within Earth and at
the surface cause rocks to change form
• Igneous rock forces include: magma, melting
and cooling
• Sedimentary rock forces include: weathering,
erosion, compacting and cementation
• Metamorphic rock forces include: heat and
pressure
 Objectives:
 1. Explain the hypothesis of
continental drift
 2. Relate how the theory of plate
tectonics explains sea-floor
spreading, subduction and the
formation of mountains
 3. Explain the mechanisms of plate
movement
 Definition: plate tectonics is the theory that
pieces of Earth’s lithosphere, called plates,
move about slowly on top of the asthenosphere
 The theory of plate tectonics explains the
formation and movement of Earth’s plates
 In 1912, a German scientist named Alfred
Wegner proposed the theory of continental
drift
 Wegner hypothesized that the continents were
once joined in a single supercontinent (called
Pangaea) which then broke into pieces and
moved apart
 Wegner’s hypothesis and new evidence led
geologists to propose the theory of plate
tectonics
 In the mid 1900s scientists mapped a chain
of ocean mountain called the mid-ocean
ridge
 While mapping the ridge they also found a
deep valley running the length of the crest
 A geologist named Harry Hess proposed the
theory of sea-floor spreading to explain this
• Definition: sea-floor spreading is the process by
which new oceanic crust is created at the mid-
ocean ridges as older crust moves away
• The ridge is a huge crack where magma is
pulled upward
• Definition: subduction is the process by which
oceanic plates sink into the magma of the
mantle creating a trench
• As sea-floor spreading occurs, old oceanic
plates sink into subduction zones
• Definition: a trench is a depression in the ocean
floor caused by the plate sinking into the
subduction zone
 Sea-floor spreading creates new oceanic crust
at mid-ocean ridges
 Subduction destroys old oceanic crust at
subduction zones
 Patterns of parallel magnetic stripes in the
rocks were identical and found on both sides
of the ridge
 The stripes exist because Earth has reversed its
magnetic field several times in the past
 The stripes indicate that new ocean floor was
added to both sides of the ridge about roughly
the same time
 Sea-floor spreading provided evidence that
pieces of Earth’s crust move
 The plate tectonics theory says that Earth’s
plates are constantly moving independent of
each other
 Each plate moves at a different rate and
direction
 Plate motions are the visible part of the process
of mantle convection
 The picture that follows begins today and goes
back millions of years to visualize Pangaea
 Definition: convection is the transfer of
heat energy when particles of a fluid
move from one place to another
 Convection currents usually exist in
circular patterns
 The heat that drives plate tectonic
convection in the mantle comes from
the decay of radioactive isotopes in the
mantle & crust, and also from the
gradual cooling of the interior of Earth
 Earth was hot when it was formed
 There are about a dozen major tectonic
plates
 Most plates contain both continental &
oceanic crust
 There are 3 types of plate boundaries:
divergent boundaries, convergent
boundaries & transform boundaries
 The plates move slowly, from 0.1 cm –
10 cm per year
• Divergent plates move away from each other
• The mid-ocean ridge is a major divergent
boundary
• When plates move apart, magma from the mantle
rises, fills the gap, then forms new rock
• Convergent plates move toward each other
• Most convergent boundaries occur at subduction
zones where less dense oceanic crust dives
underneath continental crust, slipping into the
magma, melting and destroying rock
• At transform boundaries, the plates slide past
each other in opposite directions
• Rock is neither created nor destroyed
• The San Andreas fault of which we are a part, is a
transform boundary
• Mountains form along plate boundaries
• At convergent boundaries where crust has the
same density, neither plate is subducted during
the collision
• The crust buckles, folds, thickens and pushes up
tall mountains
• Occasionally this happens between oceanic &
continental crust, but usually between
continental crust
• At divergent boundaries, the mid-ocean ridge
forms a long chain of mountains on the sea floor
• No mountains are formed at transform
boundaries
 Objectives:
 1. Describe the causes and effects of
stress in Earth’s crust
 2. Explain why earthquakes occur
and how their energy is
 3. Explain how earthquakes are
measured and how earthquake data
is used to learn about Earth’s interior
 Definition: an earthquake is movement of
Earth’s lithosphere that occurs when rock
in the lithosphere suddenly shift,
releasing stored energy
 Definition: seismic waves are energy
released during the earthquake and
carried by vibrations
 Definition: a tsunami is a large sea wave
generated by an underwater earthquake,
volcano or landslide
 Definition: stress is a force that squeezes rocks
together, stretches or pulls them apart, or pushes
them in different directions
 As tectonic plates move, they cause stress in the crust
which produces faults and folds
 Definition: a fault is break in the mass of rock along
which movement occurs
 Many faults along plate boundaries
 Definition: a fold is a bend in the layers of rock
 Folds form where rocks are squeezed together but do
not break
 They can be seen in rock layers that make up some
mountain ranges
 The pictures that follow show folded sedimentary
rock layers & other folded rock
• Earthquakes occur because stress forces have
exceeded the strength of the rock
• As the rocks break and move, potential energy is
transformed into kinetic energy in the form of
seismic waves
• Earthquakes produce 3 types of waves: P waves, S
waves and surface waves
• P waves are primary waves
• They are longitudinal waves similar to sound
waves
• P waves compress and expand the ground like an
accordion
 S waves are secondary waves
 They are transverse waves like
light or electromagnetic radiation
 Surface waves develop when
seismic waves reach Earth’s
surface
 Surface waves move more slowly
than P and S waves, but produce
larger ground movements and
greater damage
 Definition: focus is the place
underground where the rock broke &
the earthquake started
 Definition: epicenter is the place above
ground directly above the focus
 Scientists use their equipment to
gather information on where the
epicenter and focus are & to estimate
the size of the earthquake
 Geologists record seismic waves
using seismographs to measure &
pinpoint the epicenter
 Definition: a seismograph is a
device that detects and records
seismic waves
 The Richter scale for
measurement is no longer used by
geologists
 The moment magnitude scale gives a measure
of the amount of energy released
 It is the most useful of the scales currently
used
 The modified Mercalli Scale ranges from 1 to
12 and is based on observations of the
intensity of ground shaking and damage in
the areas affected by an earthquake
 An earthquake of 7 knocks over chimneys,
while 12 is total destruction of a city and
nearby towns
 Most earthquakes are concentrated along plate
boundaries, where many faults are found
• Objectives:
• 1. Describe the internal structure of a
volcano and how volcanoes form
• 2. Relate the type of volcanic eruption to
the characteristics of magma
• 3. Describe the different types of
volcanoes and where they are located
• 4. Describe several types of igneous
features and how they are formed
 Under certain conditions, small amounts of
mantle rock can melt, forming liquid magma
 The magma rises upward through the crust,
erupting at the surface as a volcano
 Before eruption, magma collects in a pocket
called a magma chamber
 The magma rises to the surface in a vertical
channel called a pipe
 The magma escapes on the surface at the vent
 A large central vent in most volcanoes is a
bowl-shaped pit called a crater
 After eruption, the magma chamber and main
vent may be empty of magma, creating a hollow
shell
 If the shell collapses inward, it creates a
depression called a caldera, located at the top of
the volcano
 Volcanoes erupt explosively or quietly
depending on the characteristics of the magma
 Recall that viscosity is resistance to flow
 Magma with high viscosity erupts explosively
 The picture is of a caldera of a volcano in
Hawaii
 Most volcanoes occur along plate
boundaries
 A few are located at hot spots in the crust
 The volcanoes at plate boundaries are
associated with subduction zones
 Definition: a hot spot is a region where
hot rock extends from deep within the
mantle to the surface
 Hawaii is built on active hot spot
volcanoes
 There are 3 major types of volcanoes
 They are: shield volcanoes, cinder cones,
and composite volcanoes
 A quiet eruption of low viscosity produces
a wide, flat shield volcano
 An ash and cinder eruption produces a
steep-sided cinder cone volcano
 Lava and ash explosive eruptions form
composite volcanoes
 Mount Saint Helens is a composite
volcano
 Magma forms igneous features such as
batholiths, sills, dikes and volcanic necks
 Definition: a batholith is the largest type
of intrusive igneous rock mass
 We live in the Sierra Nevada Batholith &
it is the the core of our mountain range
which was born out of volcanoes
 The picture is of the Sierra Nevada
Batholith
 Definition: a sill is magma that has squeezed
into a crack that is parallel to the existing rock
and hardened
 Definition: a dike is hardened magma that has
formed in a crack that cuts across rock layers
 Definition: volcanic rock is magma that has
hardened in a volcano’s pipe
 The largest lava flows come from clusters of
long thin cracks in Earth’s crust (not from
volcanoes)
 Definition: a plateau is lava that has spread
and created a high level area