Chapter 14

Lecture
PowerPoint

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 Paris Junior College

2402
Anatomy and Physiology II
Chapter 14
Susan Gossett
sgossett@parisjc.edu
Department of Biology
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 Hole’s Human Anatomy
and Physiology
Twelfth Edition

Shier  Butler  Lewis

Chapter
14
Blood

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 14.1: Introduction
Blood: Blood cells:
• Is connective tissue • Form mostly in red bone
• Transports vital marrow and are:
substances • Red blood cells (RBCs)
• Maintains stability of • White blood cells (WBCs)
interstitial fluid • Platelets (cell fragments)
• Distributes heat
• The amount of blood varies with body size, changes in
fluid concentration, changes in electrolyte concentration,
and amount of adipose tissue
• Blood is about 8% of body weight
• Adult blood volume is about 5 liters 4
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Centrifuged Blood Sample

Liquid (plasma)

“Buffy coat” (white blood cells and platelets)

Red blood cells

Peripheral Blood Smear

White blood
cells

Red blood cells 5

Platelets
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Capillary tube

Plasma = 55%

Buffy coat

Red cells = 45%

(hematocrit)

Plug
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 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Blood

45% 55%

Formed elements Plasma

Platelets Red blood cells White blood cells Electrolytes Water Proteins Wastes Nutrients Gases
(4.8%) (95.1%) (0.1%) (92%) (7%)
Vitamins

Hormones

Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Monocytes Lymphocytes Albumins Globulins Fibrinogen N2 O2 CO2

(54–62%) (1–3%) (<1%) (3–9%) (25–33%)

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 14.2: Blood Cells
• Blood cells originate in red marrow from hemocytoblasts or
hematopoietic stem cells
• Stem cells can then:
• Give rise to more stem cells
• Specialize or differentiate

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The Origin of Blood Cells
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Hematopoietic stem cell

Myeloid stem cell Lymphoid stem cell

Lymphoblast
Proerythroblast B cell
Myeloblast Monoblast Lymphoblast
precursor
In red bone marrow

T cell
Megakaryoblast
precursor

Progranulocyte

Prolymphocyte
Erythroblast Neutrophilic Basophilic Eosinophilic
myelocyte myelocyte myelocyte Promonocyte
Prolymphocyte

Normoblast

Megakaryocyte

Reticulocyte Neutrophilic Basophilic Eosinophilic

band cell band cell band cell
(some cells)In circulating blood

Erythrocyte Thrombocytes
T lymphocyte B lymphocyte
(platelets) Neutrophil Basophil Eosinophil Monocyte
Activated in tissues

Granulocytes Agranulocytes

Macrophage Plasma cell 9

(a)

(b)
Characteristics of Red Blood Cells
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Top view

Red blood cells are:

• Erythrocytes
7.5 micrometers
• Biconcave discs
• One-third hemoglobin or:
• Oxyhemoglobin 2.0 micrometers
• Deoxyhemoglobin
• Able to readily squeeze through (a)
Sectional view

capillaries
• Lack nuclei and mitochondria

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(b)
b: © Bill Longcore/Photo Researchers, Inc.
 Red Blood Cell Counts
• RBC counts is the number of RBCs in a cubic millimeter
or microliter of blood
• It may vary depending on age and health
• Typical ranges include:
• 4,600,000 – 6,200,000 in males
• 4,200,000 – 5,400,000 in adult females
• 4,500,000 – 5,100,000 in children
• RBC counts reflects blood’s oxygen carrying capacity

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 Red Blood Cell Production
and Its Control
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Low blood oxygen

• Low blood oxygen causes Release into
bloodstream

the kidneys and the liver to Liver Kidney Stimulation

release erythropoietin Inhibition

(EPO) which stimulates

RBC production –

• This is a negative Erythropoietin

feedback mechanism
• Within a few days many Increased
oxygen-
Bloodstream
new blood cells appear in carrying
capacity

the circulating blood

Increased
number of
red blood
+
cells

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Red bone marrow
 Dietary Factors Affecting Red
Blood Cell Production
• Vitamin B12 and folic acid are necessary
• They are required for DNA synthesis making them
necessary for the growth and division of all cells
• Iron is also necessary
• It is required for hemoglobin synthesis

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Red bone
Bone marrow Nutrients
from food
2 Blood transports
3 Red blood absorbed nutrients
cells produced Vitamin B12
1 Absorption Folic acid
Iron
4 Red blood cells
circulate in
bloodstream for
about 120 days

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Macrophage Old red
blood cells

Blood 6 Hemoglobin

Globin + Heme

7 Iron + Biliverdin
Bile
Liver Small
Bilirubin intestine
8

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(a)

(b)
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a: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer :b © Ed Reschke
14.1 Clinical Application

King George III

and Porphyria Variegata

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Destruction of Red Blood Cells

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 Types of White Blood Cells
• White blood cells:
• Are leukocytes
• Protect against disease
• WBC hormones are interleukins and colony-stimulating
factors which stimulate development
• There are five types of WBCs in two categories:
• Granulocytes
• Neutrophils
• Eosinophils
• Basophils
• Agranulocytes
• Lymphocytes
• Monocytes 18
 Neutrophils
• Light purple granules in acid-base
stain
• Lobed nucleus Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Other names
• Segs
• Polymorphonuclear leukocyte
• Bands (young neutrophils)
• First to arrive at infections
• Phagocytic
• 54% - 62% of leukocytes © Ed Reschke

• Elevated in bacterial infections

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 Eosinophils
• Deep red granules in acid
stain
• Bi-lobed nucleus Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Moderate allergic reactions

• Defend against parasitic
worm infestations
• 1% - 3% of leukocytes
• Elevated in parasitic worm
infestations and allergic
reactions
© Ed Reschke

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 Basophils
• Deep blue granules in
basic stain
• Release histamine Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Release heparin
• Less than 1% of leukocytes
• Similar to eosinophils in
size and shape of nuclei

© Ed Reschke

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 Monocytes
• Largest of all blood cells
• Spherical, kidney-shaped,
oval or lobed nuclei Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Leave bloodstream to
become macrophages
• 3% - 9% of leukocytes
• Phagocytize bacteria, dead
cells, and other debris

© R. Kessel/Visuals Unlimited

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 Lymphocytes
• Slightly larger than RBC
• Large spherical nucleus
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surrounded by thin rim of

cytoplasm
• T cells and B cells
• Both important in
immunity
• B cells produce antibodies
• 25% - 33% of leukocytes

© Ed Reschke

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Functions of White Blood Cells
• WBCs protect against infection
• These leukocytes can squeeze between the cells of
a capillary wall and enter the tissue space outside
the blood vessel (called diapedesis)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Connective Blood capillary

tissue
Leukocyte

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 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

1 Splinter 2 Bacteria are introduced 3 Bacteria 4 Injured cells

punctures into the dermis multiply release histamine,
epidermis causing blood
vessels to dilate

Epidermis

Dermis Blood vessels

5 Neutrophils move through 6 Neutrophils destroy

blood vessel walls and bacteria by phagocytosis
migrate toward bacteria

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 White Blood Cell Counts
• A procedure used to count number of WBCs per cubic
millimeter of blood
• Typically 5,000 – 10,000 per cubic millimeter of blood
• Leukopenia:
• Low WBC count (below 5,000)
• Typhoid fever, flu, measles, mumps, chicken pox, AIDS
• Leukocytosis:
• High WBC count (above 10,000)
• Acute infections, vigorous exercise, great loss of body
fluids
• Differential WBC count
• Lists percentages of types of leukocytes
• May change in particular diseases
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14.2 Clinical Application

Leukemia

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 Blood Platelets
• Platelets are also known as thrombocytes
• They are cell fragments of megakaryocytes
• They lack a nucleus and are roughly half the size of a RBC
• There are approximately 130,000 – 360,000 per cubic
millimeter of blood
• They help repair damaged blood vessels by sticking to
broken surfaces

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 14.3: Blood Plasma
• Blood plasma is:
• Straw colored
• The liquid portion of blood
• 55% of blood volume
• 92% water
• Includes transporting nutrients, gases, and vitamins
• Helps regulate fluid and electrolyte balance and
maintain pH

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 Plasma Proteins
• These are the most abundant dissolved substances
(solutes) in plasma

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 Gases and Nutrients
• The most important blood gases:
• Oxygen
• Carbon dioxide
• Plasma nutrients include:
• Amino acids
• Simple sugars
• Nucleotides
• Lipids
• Fats (triglycerides)
• Phospholipids
• Cholesterol

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 Nonprotein Nitrogenous
Substances
• These are molecules containing nitrogen but are not
proteins
• In plasma they include:
• Urea – product of protein catabolism; about 50% of
nonprotein nitrogenous substances
• Uric acid – product of nucleic acid catabolism
• Amino acids – product of protein catabolism
• Creatine – stores phosphates
• Creatinine – product of creatine metabolism
• BUN – blood urea nitrogen; indicates health of kidney

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 Plasma Electrolytes
• Plasma contains a variety of these ions called electrolytes
• They are absorbed from the intestine or released as by-
products of cellular metabolism
• They include:
• Sodium (most abundant with chloride)
• Potassium
• Calcium
• Magnesium
• Chloride (most abundant with sodium)
• Bicarbonate
• Phosphate
• Sulfate 35
 14.4: Hemostasis
• Hemostasis refers to the stoppage of bleeding
• Actions that limit or prevent blood loss include:
• Blood vessel spasm
• Platelet plug formation
• Blood coagulation

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 Blood Vessel Spasm
• Blood vessel spasm
• Triggered by pain receptors, platelet release, or
serotonin
• Smooth muscle in blood vessel contracts

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 Platelet Plug Formation
• Platelet plug formation
• Triggered by exposure of platelets to collagen
• Platelets adhere to rough surface to form a plug
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Endothelial lining Collagen fiber

1 Break in
vessel wall

Platelet Red blood cell

2 Blood escaping
through break

3 Platelets adhere to each other ,

to end of broken vessel, and to
exposed collagen

4 Platelet plug helps

control blood loss
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 Blood Coagulation
• Blood coagulation
• Triggered by cellular damage and blood contact with
foreign surfaces
• A blood clot forms
• This is a:
• Hemostatic mechanism
• Causes the formation of a blot clot via a series of
reactions which activates the next in a cascade
• Occurs extrinsically or intrinsically

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 Extrinsic Clotting Mechanism
• Extrinsic clotting mechanism
• Chemical outside of blood vessel triggers blood
coagulation
• Triggered by tissue thromboplastin (factor III) (not
found in blood)
• A number of events occur that includes factor VII,
factor X, factor V, factor IV, and factor II (prothrombin)
• Triggered when blood contacts damaged blood vessel
walls or tissues
• This is an example of a positive feedback mechanism

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© SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

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 Intrinsic Clotting Mechanism
• Intrinsic clotting mechanism
• Chemical inside blood triggers blood coagulation
• Triggered by Hageman factor XII (found inside blood)
• Factor XII activates factor XI which activates IX which
joins with factor VIII to activate factor X
• Triggered when blood contacts a foreign surface

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Extrinsic Clotting Intrinsic Clotting

Mechanism Mechanism
Tissue damage Blood contacts
foreign surface
Releases Activates

Tissue thromboplastin Hageman Factor Xll

(Factor lll)
Activates (Ca+2) Activates

Factor Vll Factor Xl

Activates (Ca+2) Activates

Factor X Factor lX

Activates Factor Vlll

Factor V (Ca ) +2 platelet phospholipids

Factor X
Activates (Ca+2)
Activates
Factor V
(Ca+2)

Prothrombin
activator
Converts

Prothrombin Thrombin
(Factor ll) (Factor lla)
Converts

Fibrinogen Fibrin
(Factor l)

Factor Xlll
Stabilizes
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Fibrin
clot
 Fate of Blood Clots
• After a blood clot forms it retracts and pulls the edges of a
broken blood vessel together while squeezing the fluid serum
from the clot
• Platelet-derived growth factor stimulates smooth muscle cells
and fibroblasts to repair damaged blood vessel walls
• Plasmin digests the blood clots
• A thrombus is an abnormal blood clot
• An embolus is a blood clot moving through the blood vessels

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Lumen Artery wall Lumen Plaque Artery wall

(a) (b)
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer

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14.3 Clinical Application

Deep Vein Thrombosis

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 Prevention of Coagulation
• The smooth lining of blood vessels discourages the
accumulation of platelets and clotting factors
• As a clot forms fibrin absorbs thrombin and prevents the
clotting reaction from spreading
• Anti-thrombin inactivates additional thrombin by binding
to it and blocking its action on fibrinogen
• Some cells such as basophils and mast cells secrete heparin
(an anticoagulant)

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 14.5: Blood Groups
and Transfusions
• In 1910, identification of the ABO blood antigen gene
explained the observed blood type incompatibilities
• Today there are 31 different genes known to contribute to
the surface features of RBCs determining compatibility
between blood types

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 Antigens and Antibodies
• Terms to become familiar with:
• Agglutination – clumping of red blood cells in response
to a reaction between an antibody and an antigen
• Antigens – a chemical that stimulates cells to produce
antibodies
• Antibodies – a protein that reacts against a specific
antigen

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Red blood cell Anti-B antibody Red blood cell Anti-A antibody

Antigen A
Antigen B

Type A blood Type B blood

Red blood cell Anti-A antibody Anti-B antibody

Antigen A

Antigen B

Red blood cell

Type AB blood Type O blood

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 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Agglutinated red
Red blood cell
Antigen A blood cells

Anti-B antibody Anti-A antibody

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

c: © G.W. Willis/Visuals Unlimited; figure d: © George W. Wilder/Visuals Unlimited

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14.1 From Science to Technology

Blood Typing and Matching:

From Serology to DNA Chips

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 ABO Blood Group
• Based on the presence or absence of two major antigens on
red blood cell membranes
• Antigen A
• Antigen B

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 Rh Blood Group
• The Rh blood group was named for the rhesus monkey
• The group includes several Rh antigens or factors
• Rh positive – presence of antigen D or other Rh antigens on
the red blood cell membranes
• Rh negative – lack of these antigens
• The seriousness of the Rh blood group is evident in a fetus
that develops the condition erythroblastosis fetalis or
hemolytic disease of the newborn

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–– – –– – ––– –––
– – – – – – – – –– – – ––
– – – – – – – –
– – – –
– –– – –– – – – –
– – – –
– – – –
– – –– – – –– – –
– – – – – – – – –– – – ––
– – – – – – – – – – – –
– – –– – – –– –– – – –
– – – –– –
–
– – – –– –
– – – – – – – – – –– – – –– – –– – – ––
– – – – – – ++ + – –
– – – –
– –
– – – – ++ – – – – – – –
– – – + – +
– – + – + + – – – –
+ + – – – –
– – + + + – + + + + – – – –
– + + + – + –
– + – + – –
– + – + – –
+
– – – – + – – – – – –
– – –
Rh-negative Cells from Woman In the next
woman with Rh-positive becomes Rh-positive
Rh-positive fetus enter sensitized— pregnancy,
fetus woman’s antibodies ( + ) maternal
bloodstream form to fight antibodies
Rh-positive attack fetal red
blood cells blood cells
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 Important Points in Chapter 14:
Outcomes to be Assessed
14.1: Introduction
 Describe the general characteristics of blood and discuss its major
functions.
 Distinguish among the formed elements of blood and the liquid
portion of blood.
14.2: Blood Cells
 Describe the origin of blood cells.
 Explain the significance of red blood cells counts and how they are
used to diagnose disease.
 Discuss the life cycle of a red blood cell.
 Summarize the control of red blood cell production. 60
 Important Points in Chapter 14:
Outcomes to be Assessed

 Distinguish among the five types of white blood cells and give the
function(s) of each type.
 Describe a blood platelet and explain its functions.
14.3: Blood Plasma
 Describe the functions of each of the major components of plasma.
14.4: Hemostasis
 Define hemostasis and explain the mechanisms that help to achieve it.
 Review the major steps in coagulation.
 Explain how to prevent coagulation.

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 Important Points in Chapter 14:
Outcomes to be Assessed

14.5: Blood Groups and Transfusions

 Explain blood typing and how it is used to avoid adverse reactions
following blood transfusions.
 Describe how blood reactions may occur between fetal and maternal
tissues.

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 Quiz 14
Complete Quiz 14 now!

Read Chapter 15.

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