BE-STEM 11 IS – BLOCK—B

Earth Science (Lecture & Laboratory)

ENDOGENIC AND
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
Earth Science | MODULE 6
INTRODUCTION -2
           Exogenic processes include geological phenomena and processes that originate externally to
the Earth's surface. They are genetically related to the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere, and
therefore to processes of weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, denudation, etc. Exogenic
factors and processes could also have sources outside the Earth, for instance under the influence of
the Sun, Moon, etc. The above-mentioned processes constitute essential landform-shaping factors.

            Earth’s surface provides a harsh environment for rocks. Most rocks originate under much
higher temperatures and pressures and in very different chemical settings than those found at
Earth’s surface. Thus, surface and near-surface conditions of comparatively low temperature, low
pressure, and extensive contact with water cause rocks to undergo varying amounts of disintegration
and decomposition.

Endogenic processes are caused by endogenic factors or agents supplying energy for activities that
are located within the Earth or below the Earth’s surface. They refer to the movement of the Earth’s
lithosphere resulting in the formation of landforms.

           The endogenic processes of Earth are responsible for earthquakes, movement of plates
leading to the development of continents, mountain building, volcanic activities, and other
movements related to Earth’s crust.
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
EXOGENIC PROCESSES

1. WEATHERING

         Environmental conditions at and near Earth’s surface subject rocks to temperature, pressures,
and substances, especially water, that contribute to the physical and chemical breakdown of exposed
rock. Broken fragments of rock, called clasts that detach from the original rock mass can be large or
small. These detached pieces continue to weather into smaller particles. Fragments may accumulate
close to their source or be widely dispersed by mass wasting and the geomorphic agents. Many
weathered rock fragments become sediments deposited in such landforms as floodplains, beaches,
or sand dunes, whereas others blanket hillslopes as regolith, the inorganic portion of soils.
Weathering is the principal source of the inorganic constituents of soil, without which most vegetation
could not grow. Likewise, ions chemically removed from rocks during weathering are transported in
surface or subsurface water to other locations. Ions represent a major source of nutrients in
terrestrial as well as aquatic ecosystems, including rivers, ponds, lakes, and the ocean.

       The several types of rock weathering fall into two basic categories. Physical weathering, also
known as mechanical weathering, disintegrates rocks, breaking smaller fragments from a larger
block or outcrop rock. Chemical weathering decomposes rock through chemical reactions that
remove ions from the original rock-forming minerals. Many different physical and chemical processes
lead to rock weathering, and water plays an important role in almost all of them.

a. Physical Weathering

Mechanical weathering or physical weathering is the physical breakdown of rock into unconnected
grains or chunks without changing its composition. This occurs in several ways:

A rock formed underground experiences high confining pressure. When this rock is brought to the
surface by uplift, high pressure is released due to the removal of the overburden. As a result,
natural cracks or joints are formed, breaking the rock into rectangular blocks or irregular chunks,
or onion-like sheets. Intrusive rock such as granite usually split into onion-like sheets parallel to
the surface in a process called exfoliation.
In temperate regions or high altitudes, water inside the fracture of rocks experience regular
freezing and thawing. When it freezes, it causes the joints to expand and grow, causing pieces of
rocks to detach. This process is called frost wedging.
Joints also expand when plants growing on their surface pry it opens in a process called root
wedging.
In deserts or along with coastal areas, salt solutions from groundwater or from sea spray can
accumulate in the pore spaces and fractures of rocks. When the salt crystallizes, it pushes apart
the surrounding grains and weakens the rock, causing it to disintegrate when exposed to wind or
rain. This process is called salt wedging.
Thermal expansion occurs when a rock is exposed to high temperatures such as a forest fire; its
outer layer expands due to baking. When it cools, the outer layer contracts, causing the surface
to break off into sheets. Burrowing animals also push open cracks and move rock fragments.
Human activities, such as digging and blasting, also contribute significantly to physical
weathering.

b. Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering occurs when there are chemical changes in at least some of the compositions
of the rock. It is a surface or near-surface process that is not influenced by high temperature or
pressure. The chemical reactions occur at a faster rate in warm, wet climates like in the tropics. The
common chemical reactions that occur in rocks are the following:

Dissolution happens in certain minerals which are dissolved in water. Halite (NaCl) dissolves
rapidly in pure water while calcite (CaCO3) dissolves rapidly in acidic water like rainwater.
Limestone, which is composed of calcite, is weathered through this process and develops caves
through time.
Hydrolysis occurs when water reacts with the minerals and breaks them down. The process
occurs faster in slightly acidic water. The common rock-forming minerals like amphibole,
pyroxene, and feldspar all react with water and form various types of clay minerals.
Oxidation, or the reaction of oxygen with minerals in the rock, forms oxides. Oxidation of iron-
bearing minerals like biotite and pyrite produces iron oxide (hematite) and iron hydroxide
(goethite).
Hydration occurs when water is absorbed into the crystal structure of the mineral, causing it to
expand. Certain types of clay expand through this process.
Biological weathering also occurs in the roots of plants, when fungi and lichens secrete organic
acids that dissolve minerals and the nutrients are taken in by these organisms. There are also
certain bacteria that consume certain minerals.

        Physical and chemical weathering occurs simultaneously in disintegrating the rocks to form
sediments. However, rock types do not weather at the same rate when exposed to the surface. Soft
rocks like shale weather faster than hard rocks like sandstone. This creates indentations in rock
slopes composed of alternating soft and hard rock layers. Weathering is an important process in the
formation of soil. The products of weathering, along with organic matter, form the soils that host
primary producers that sustain life on Earth.

2. EROSION

 Erosion is the separation and removal of weathered and unweathered rocks and soil from its
substrate due to gravity or transporting agents like wind, ice, or water. It involves abrasion, plucking,
scouring, and dissolution. Transport is the process by which sediments are moved along from the
source to where they are deposited.

Wind Erosion- commonly occurs in flat, bare areas or dry, sandy, and loose soils. It detaches
soils particles and transports them by the wind. Sandstorms are a common phenomenon in
deserts that transports lots of sediments for hundreds of kilometers. Wind erosion damages the
land and natural vegetation by removing soil from one place and depositing it in another area
such as farmland or built-up areas. It results in soil loss, dryness, and deterioration of soil
structure, soils nutrients, and productivity losses, and air pollution. The sand dunes in Paoay,
Ilocos Norte are formed through this process.
Glacier is a permanent body of ice, which consists largely of recrystallized snow and shows
evidence of movement due to gravity. Glaciers have enormous erosive power. As rock moves
over a rock, it acts like a bulldozer; the rocks and soil at the surface are scraped off and ground
against the mixture of ice and rocks. It moves slowly but erodes downward rapidly, forming U-
shaped valleys. This erosion process is dominant in Polar Regions and in high-altitude
mountains.
Water is the most common erosion agent. Millions of tons of sediments are picked-up and
transported every day along rivers, coasts, and deep oceans around the world. Sediments move
along in four ways:
Traction -- rolling or dragging of large grains aided by the push of smaller grains.
Saltation – bouncing of sand grains as they are picked up along, and dropped repeatedly.
Suspension – movement of fine particles like silt and clay.
Solution – the movement of soluble minerals (salts).
 

3. MASS WASTING

        Mass wasting or mass movement is the downslope movement of rock, soil, and ice due to
gravity. It is also a natural hazard that can cause damage to life and property. The factors that
contribute to the occurrence of mass wasting are the following:

1. Relief- the difference in elevation between two places creates slopes; gravity pulls materials at
higher elevations to lower elevations.
2. Slope stability- the balance between the downslope force caused by gravity and the resistance
force due to friction; slope failure occurs when the downslope force is greater.
3. Fragmentation and weathering- intact rock is held together by chemical bonds within minerals,
by mineral cement, and by the interlocking of grains, while a fragmented rock is held only by
friction between planes or by weak electrical charges between grains.

        Mass wasting can be classified in a number of ways such as type of materials, type of motion,
and speed of movement. In general, the types of materials include rock and soil. Predominantly
coarse soli materials are called debris while predominantly fine materials are labeled as earth. The
general types of motion include fall, topple, slide, spread, and flow.

1. Fall includes the free fall movement, bouncing, and rolling of materials on a slope.
2. A topple is the forward rotation out of the slope of a soil or rock mass. The rotation axis is usually
at the base of the moving mass, below its center of gravity.
3. A slide is the downslope movement of coherent materials along a well-defined surface of rupture
called sliding surface. A slide could form a planar or curved sliding surface.
4. Spread is the lateral extension and fracturing of a coherent mass due to the plastic flow of its
underlying material. This could occur as slit layers liquefy during an earthquake.
5. Flow happens when the materials are saturated and move downslope as a viscous fluid.
6. Complex or combinations of several types of movements could occur.

4. DEPOSITION

       The sediments produced by weathering, which were separated by erosion and transported by
different agents, will eventually settle down in a particular place given the right conditions. Deposition
is the process in which sediments out of the transporting medium. When the glacier melts, the rocks
are deposited on the ground. The layer formed when the materials are laid down is called bed. It
varies in thickness depending on the volume of the sediments. The distribution of grain size in a layer
is called sorting. If the beds consist only of one or two similar grain sizes, it has good sorting (well
sorted). If the grain size consists of a mixture of very fine (clay-size) and very coarse (boulder-sized)
grains, it exhibits poor sorting. A layer can also have a gradational change in grain size when there is
a sequential variation such as from coarse to fine. In a mixture with various grain sizes, the larger
sediments are called clasts and the surrounding fine-grained sediments are referred to as matrix.

The area where sediments are deposited is called sedimentary environment. Some of these
environments are the following:

1. Glacial environment – Glacial environments refer to areas where glaciers and ice sheets are
found such as in high altitude mountains and in polar regions. At the end of a glacier, a pile of
sediments, ranging from clay to boulder-size, mixed together can be found and it is called glacial
till.
2. Mountain stream environment – turbulent streams can carry large sediment like boulders and
cobbles during a flood, forming thick gravel and boulder layers. Conglomerates usually form in
this environment.
 3. Mountain front environment – when a stream enters the flat area at the base of a mountain, it
loses energy and decreases velocity. This results in a landform called alluvial fan which is
primarily composed of sand- to boulder-sized sediments.
4. Desert environment – wind carries sand and silt materials. When deposited, well-sorted sand
produces sand dunes, while the accumulation of silts forms loses deposit. Sediments from
solutions called evaporites are also formed when temporary lakes in the desert dry up.
5. Lake (lacustrine) environment – a lake is a quiet environment. Streams carrying sediments
deposits coarse sediments on lake margins, only silt and clay are deposited from suspension in
deeper parts of the lake. Shale can form in this environment.
6. River (fluvial) environment – in flat areas, rivers are slow-moving and commonly carry an
assortment of pebbles, sand, silt, and mud. The coarser sediments tumble along the river bed
while finer ones move along in suspension. Mud is deposited on the floodplain after flood events.
Pebbles and sand are deposited on the inner bend of the meander. Beds of sand and pebble
form lenses alternating with silt and mud layer.
7. Delta environment – when a river enters the sea, it empties its load in a delta, which extends to
the shallow coastal areas. The upper part of the delta consists mostly of coarse sand and gravel;
the middle portion contains fine sand and silt, and the basal portion is mostly silt and clay. Mud is
also found in the swamps.
8. Beach environment – tidal currents transport sands along the coastline. The waves winnow out
the finer sediments, leaving only well-sorted and well-rounded sand grains that form ripples.
9. Shallow marine environment – the mud and silt removed from the shoreline and from river
mouths are transported by tidal currents and deposited in quieter waters below the wave zone. It
forms well-sorted and well-rounded silt and mud layers inhabited by various organisms like
worms and mollusks.
10. Shallow-water carbonate environment - in a shallow marine environment where the supply of
sediments is limited, marine organisms like coral reefs develop where the water is fairly warm,
clear and full of nutrients. Most of the sediments are derived from the shell and coral fragments
collectively called carbonate sediments. Limestone can be formed in this environment.
11. Deep marine environment – slope failure from the steep slopes of submarine canyons
generates submarine landslides which create sediments of varying size. Turbidity currents carry
the finer sediment components, ranging from sand to clay to a submarine fan where turbidite
deposit/ sequence is formed. In the deep ocean floor, clay and planktons settle down and form
very thin layers of mud. Chalk is formed from very calcite shells while chert is derived from
siliceous shells.

            As layers of sediments accumulate in the different depositional environments, the

previously deposited sediments underneath are buried. The sedimentary environment also sinks
slowly to accommodate more sediment. The buried sediments experience compaction due to
increasing pressure and the grains are packed tighter. Dissolved chemicals in the water
occupying the pore spaces in between the grains precipitate and form new minerals called
cement. This process that binds together the individual grains is called cementation. Some
minerals are also recrystallizing, and recrystallization is referred to as diagenesis. The sediments
undergo lithification when those changes occur and become sedimentary rocks.

 
ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
                                                          ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

                                                           Volcanoes and Volcanism

Volcanoes

      The lithosphere is divided into several plates. These plates drift slowly over the mantle below,
which is lubricated by a soft layer called the asthenosphere. The process at the boundary between
some of these plates is the one responsible for magma production among volcanoes.

      A volcano is a mountain that opens downward to a reservoir of molten rock called magma below
the surface of the Earth. They differ from most mountains because they have vents where molten
rocks escape to the Earth’s surface during volcanic eruptions. Volcanic landforms are controlled by
the geological processes that formed them and act on them even after they have formed.

      There are more than 1,500 volcanoes on Earth that have the potential to become active, as they
have already erupted within the past 10, 000 years. Most volcanoes can be found only on designated
narrow bands that are suitable for the completion of the three stages of a volcano’s life cycle. These
three stages are invasion of magma, pressure building, and eruption.

      About 95% of the world’s volcanoes are located near the boundaries of tectonic plates while the
remaining 5% are thought to be associated with mantle plumes and hotspots.

      Hotspots and mantle plumes were first observed in the 1960s. During this period, geologists were
set on various explorations to either prove or disprove the theory of moving plates. During his visit to
Hawaii, Canadian geophysicist John Tuzo Wilson and one of the founders of the theory of plate
tectonics noticed some interesting features about the ocean islands. He found three linear chains of
volcanoes and submarine volcanoes (seamounts) which are separated by thousands of miles from
each other. When he studied the reports and recorded the age of each island, Wilson found an
interesting pattern – the islands become progressively younger to the southeast. At the end of the
chain, at the extreme southeast, he found active volcanoes. His theory states that volcanic chains
like the Hawaiian Islands result from the slow movement of tactic plates across a fixed hotspot.

       Mantle plumes are areas or columns where heat or rocks in the mantle are rising toward Earth’s
surface. They can be located underneath continental or oceanic crust or along plate boundaries.
They are thought to spread out laterally at the base of a continent that allowed an increase in
pressure that stretches the crust, resulting in an uplift, a fracture, or a rift.

        Hotspots are locations on Earth’s surface that have experienced active volcanic activities for a
long period of time. Hotspots are thought to be caused by the convection of the hot mantle at the
mantle plumes. The region is fed by the underlying mantle from which heat rises as a thermal plume
inside the earth. Rocks within a hotspot melt and become magma due to high temperature and low
pressure at the base of the tectonic plate. These hot magmas will then rise through a crack and erupt
to form volcanoes. As the tectonic plate moves over the stationary hotspot, the volcanoes are rafted
away and new ones form in their respective places. As the ocean floor floats over this zone, the
upwelling lava creates a steady succession of new volcanoes that move along with the plate. There
are about 40-50 identified hotspots in the world. Geologists have identified the Galapagos Islands,
Hawaii, Iceland, Reunion, and Yellowstone as some of the most active hotspots at the present.

Volcanism

            Volcanism is one of the most impressive displays of Earth’s dynamic internal processes.
From a human perspective, volcanism can be a destructive force causing property damage, injuries,
fatalities, and atmospheric changes. From a geologic perspective, volcanism is a constructive
process that builds oceanic islands, produces oceanic crust, provides parent material for highly
productive soils, and releases the gases that formed Earth’s early atmosphere and surface waters.

             Volcanism refers to the processes and phenomena associated with the surficial discharge of
molten rock and other materials into the surface of Earth and other heavenly bodies such as the
moon and other planets in the solar system.

Where are volcanoes formed?

Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are pulled apart or come together. Active
volcanism occurs in four principal settings.

      Divergent Plate Boundaries

A mid-oceanic ridge, for example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has examples of volcanoes caused
by “divergent tectonic plates” pulling apart.
Black smokers or deep-sea vents are an example of this kind of volcanic activity.
Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea level, volcanic islands are formed, for example,
Iceland.

     Convergent Plate Boundaries

The Pacific Ring of Fire has examples of volcanoes caused by “convergent tectonic plates”
coming together.
Subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental
plate, collide.
In this case, the oceanic plate subducts or submerges under the continental plate performing
a deep ocean trench just offshore.
Typical examples of this kind of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring
of Fire.

Non-hotspot/ Intraplate Volcanism

Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the Earth’s crust such as in
the
African Rift Valley
the Wells Gray-Clearwater Volcanic Field and the Rio Grande Rift in North America and
the European Rhine Graben with its Eifel volcanoes

Hotspots

Volcanoes can be caused by “mantle plumes”. These so called “hotspots” can occur far from
plate boundaries.
Hotspots are not usually located in ridges of tectonic plates, but above mantle plumes, where
the convection of Earth’s mantle creates a column of hot material that rises until it reaches the
crust, which tends to be thinner than in other areas of the Earth.
The Hawaiian Islands are thought to be formed in such a manner, as well as the Snake River
Plain, with the Yellowstone Caldera being the part of the North American plate currently above
the hotspot.

 Types of Volcanoes

1. Shield volcanoes
Shield volcanoes are named for their broad, shield-like profiles. They are formed by the
eruption of low viscosity lavas that can flow a great distance from a vent but generally explode
catastrophically.
The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield volcanoes and they are common in Iceland,
as well.
2. Lava domes

Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lavas. They are sometimes formed
within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption (as in Mount Saint Helens), but can also form
independently, as in the case of Lassen Peak.
Like stratovolcanoes, they can produce violent, explosive eruptions, but their lavas generally
do not flow far from the originating vent.

3. Volcanic cones/ Cinder cones

Volcanic cones or cinder cones result from eruptions that erupt mostly small pieces of scoria
and pyroclastics (both resemble cinders, hence the name of this volcano type) that build up
around the vent.
These can be relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to
400 meters high.
Most cinder cones erupt only once.
Cinder cones may form as flank vents on larger volcanoes, or occur on their own.
Paricutin in Mexico and Sunset Crater in Arizona are examples of cinder cones.

4. Stratovolcanoes/ Composite volcanoes

Stratovolcanoes are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows and other ejecta in
alternate layers, the strata give rise to the name.
Stratovolcanoes are also known as composite volcanoes. These are made of cinders, ash,
and lava. Cinders and ash pile on top of each other, then lava flows on top and dries and then
the process begins again.
Classic examples include Mt. Fuji in Japan, Mount Mayon in the Philippines, and Mount
Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy.

5. Supervolcano

A supervolcano is a popular term for a large volcano that usually has a large caldera and can
potentially produce devastation on an enormous, sometimes continental scale.
Such eruptions would be able to cause severe cooling of global temperatures for many years
afterward because of the huge volumes of sulfur and ash that erupted.
They are the most dangerous type of volcano. Examples include Yellowstone Caldera in
Yellowstone National Park of the western USA, Lake Taupo in New Zealand, and Lake Toba in
Sumatra, Indonesia.

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                                                                       Earthquakes

         An earthquake is a natural phenomenon that is characterized by a sudden, violent shifting of

massive plates underneath the Earth’s surface. This movement of plates releases the stress that
generates along geologic faults.

           The Philippines is prone to earthquakes because of the numerous numbers of faults within the
country. Therefore, it is already given that the Philippines would experience a lot of geologic hazards.

            Most earthquakes occur at the boundaries where the plates meet. It can also occur within
plates. Although plate-boundary earthquakes are much more common. Less than 10 percent of all
earthquakes occur within the plate interiors.

Anatomy of an Earthquake

            Earthquakes are forms of wave energy that are transmitted through the bedrock. The point
within the earth along the geological faults where an earthquake originates is called hypocenter
(focus). The point on the earth’s surface directly above the focus is called the epicenter. Seismic
waves start to radiate from the hypocenter and subsequently form along the fault rupture. When the
hypocenter is located near the surface, from 0 to 70 km, shallow-focus earthquakes are produced.
Earthquakes with focal depths from 70 to 300 km are classified as intermediate. If it exceeds 300
km up to 700 km, deep-focus earthquakes are produced. As shallow-focus earthquakes are closer
to the surface where rocks are stronger and could build up the greater strain, these earthquakes are
larger and more damaging compared to the deep-focus earthquake.

Two general types of vibrations:

            Seismic waves are classified into two: surface waves and body waves.

1. Body Waves
Waves that travel below the surface of the Earth.
They are of two types: compressional or primary (P) waves and shear or secondary (S) Both
waves are called body waves because they can travel through the interior of the Earth from the
focus to distant points on the surface. P waves travel fasted at a speed between 4-8 km/s at
Earth’s crust; hence, they are the first to arrive at a location. S waves usually travel at 2.5-4 km/s
and can only travel through solid materials unlike the P waves, which can move through all states
of matter.
During earthquakes, we hear sounds coming from the ground. These waves are actually the P
waves, which are commonly heard but seldom felt. P waves shake the ground in the direction
they are propagating, while S waves shake the ground perpendicularly, causing more damage to
the surface above it.

 2. Surface Waves

Waves can only travel along the surface. They arrive after the P waves and S waves and are
confined to the outer layers of the Earth.
Happens when the shifting of Earth’s plates are driven by the sudden release of energy
within some limited region of the rocks of Earth. The energy can be released by elastic
strain, gravity, movement of massive bodies, or chemical reactions.
Occurs when strains in rock masses have accumulated to a point where the resulting
stress exceeded the strength of the rocks, resulting to sudden fractures that eventually
propagate through rocks in rapid motion.
Surface waves are classified into two: love and Love waves move transverse to the
direction of the propagation but with no vertical motion. They cause rocks to move
horizontally or side to side at right angles to the directions of the traveling wave.
Rayleigh waves, also called the ground roll, because rock particles move upward, up,
 backward, and down in a path that contains the direction of the wave travel. Love
waves cause the most damage to buildings and structures.

Types of Earthquakes

            Geologists also classified earthquakes depending on the region where each
occurs and the geological make-up of that region.

1. Tectonic Earthquake
Happens when the shifting of Earth’s plates is driven by the sudden release of energy
within some limited region of the rocks of Earth. The energy can be released by elastic
strain, gravity, movement of massive bodies, or chemical reactions.
Occurs when strains in rock masses have accumulated to a point where the resulting
stress exceeded the strength of the rocks, resulting in sudden fractures that eventually
propagate through rocks in rapid motion.
2. Volcanic Earthquake
This phenomenon occurs in volcanic regions and can serve as an early warning of
volcanic eruptions. Volcanic earthquakes are caused by either the injection or withdrawal
of magma in response to the changes in pressure in the rock where the magma has
experienced stress. They are comparatively less common than tectonic earthquakes.
There are two types of volcanic earthquakes: the volcanic tectonic earthquakes, which
occur after a volcanic activity has taken place and the long-period volcanic earthquake
that occurs after a volcanic eruption. A few days before the great explosion, the change in
heat of magma below Earth’s surface created seismic waves, causing an earthquake.
3. Collapse Earthquake
Caused by seismic waves produced from the explosion of rocks on the surface. Collapse
earthquakes are small earthquakes located underground and in mines that are caused by
the disintegration of the roof of the mine or cavern or by massive land sliding.
An often-observed variation of this earthquake type is the “mine (rock) burst”. It is believed
that the occurrence of mine bursts increases as the depth of the mine increases.
Hundreds of miners die in mine bursts annually, and mining is considered one of the
deadliest industries at present.
4. Explosive Earthquake
It is an earthquake that results from the detonation of chemicals or nuclear devices. An
explosion occurs when enormous nuclear energy is released during underground nuclear
explosions. In a millionth of a second after a nuclear device is detonated in a borehole
underground, the pressure jumps thousands of times the pressure of the atmospheric
pressure and the temperature increases by millions of degrees.

Measuring Seismic Waves

Seismologists use the seismograph to detect the presence of an earthquake and its
magnitude.
Traditionally, geologists use the Mercalli and the Richter scales to assign a magnitude to
earthquakes.
Mercalli Scale – invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902. This scale uses observation of the
people who experience the earthquakes to estimate their intensity. However, this was not
considered scientific.
Richter Scale – also known as the local magnitude (ML) scale. Introduced by Charles F.
Richter in 1934. Assigns a single number to quantify the amount of seismic energy
released by an earthquake.

Richter Mercalli Description Earthquake Effects

2 I Instrumental Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable
conditions, detected mostly by seismography

Felt only by a few persons indoors, especially on upper floors

II Feeble
of buildings

Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper

floors of buildings. Many people do not recognize it as an
III Slight
earthquake. Idle cars may rock slightly. Vibration is similar to
the passing of a truck.
3
Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night,
there would be some awakening. Dishes, windows, doors are
IV Moderate
disturbed; walls make cracking sounds. The sensation is like a
heavy truck striking a building. Idle cars rock noticeably.

Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes and

4 V Rather Strong windows are broken. Unstable objects overturned. Pendulum
ducks may stop.

Felt by all. Some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of

VI Strong
fallen plaster. Slight damage.

5 Damage noticeable in buildings of good design and

construction; slight to moderate in well-built structures;
VII Very Strong
considerable damage in ordinary structures; considerable
damage in poorly built or bad designed structures.

Slight damage in specially designed structures; considerable

damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse.
6 VIII Destructive Great damage in poorly built structures. Fall of factory stacks,
columns, monuments, and walls. Heavy furniture is
overturned.

Considerable damage is specially designed structures; well-

designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. Great damage
IX Ruinous
in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted
off foundations,
7

Some well-built wooden structures are destroyed; most

X Disastrous masonry and frame structures are destroyed with foundations.
Rails bend greatly.

Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges

XI Very Disastrous
destroyed. Rails bent greatly.
8
Total damage. Lines of sight and level distorted. Objects are
XII Catastrophic
thrown into the air.

 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e7ho6z32yyo (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e7ho6z32yyo)

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e7ho6z32yyo)