Nature of Magma and Lava

Molten rock below the surface of the Earth that rises

in volcanic vents is known as magma, but after it erupts from
a volcano it is called lava. Originating many tens of miles
beneath the ground, the ascending magma commonly
contains some crystals, fragments of surrounding (unmelted)
rocks, and dissolved gases, but it is primarily a liquid
composed principally of oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron,
magnesium, calcium, sodium, potassium, titanium, and
manganese. Magmas also contain many other chemical
elements in trace quantities. Upon cooling, the liquid magma may precipitate crystals of various
minerals until solidification is complete to form an igneous or magmatic rock.

The diagram below shows that heat concentrated in the Earth's upper mantle raises
temperatures sufficiently to melt the rock locally by fusing the materials with the lowest melting
temperatures, resulting in small, isolated blobs of magma. These blobs then collect, rise through
conduits and fractures, and some ultimately may re-collect in larger pockets or reservoirs ("holding
tanks") a few miles beneath the Earth's surface. Mounting pressure within the reservoir may drive
the magma further upward through structurally weak zones to erupt as lava at the surface. In a
continental environment, magmas are generated in the Earth's crust as well as at varying depths in
the upper mantle. The variety of molten rocks in the crust, plus the possibility of mixing with
molten materials from the underlying mantle, leads to the production of magmas with widely
different chemical compositions.

An idealized diagram of a volcano in an oceanic environment (left) and in a

continental environment (right).
 Properties of the Different Types of Magma

Property Basaltic Andesitic Granitic

Silica Content least (~50%) least (~50%) most (~70%)
Viscosity least intermediate most
Tendency to highest intermediate least
form Lava
Tendency to least intermediate highest
form pyroclastic
materials

If magmas cool rapidly, as might be expected near or on the Earth's surface, they solidify
to form igneous rocks that are finely crystalline or glassy with few crystals. Accordingly, lavas,
which of course are very rapidly cooled, form volcanic rocks typically characterized by a small
percentage of crystals or fragments set in a matrix of glass (quenched or super-cooled magma) or
finer grained crystalline materials. If magmas never breach the surface to erupt and remain deep
underground, they cool much more slowly and thus allow ample time to sustain crystal
precipitation and growth, resulting in the formation of coarser grained, nearly completely
crystalline, igneous rocks. Subsequent to final crystallization and solidification, such rocks can be
exhumed by erosion many thousands or millions of years later and be exposed as large bodies of
so-called granitic rocks, as, for example, those spectacularly displayed in Yosemite National Park
and other parts of the majestic Sierra Nevada mountains of California.

Two Polynesian terms are used to identify the surface character of Hawaiian
lava flows. Aa, a basalt with a rough, blocky appearance, much like furnace
slag, is shown at the left. Pahoehoe, a more fluid variety with a smooth, satiny
and sometimes glassy appearance, is shown at the right.

Sources of Magma

1- Partial melting

Melting of solid rocks to form magma is

controlled by three physical parameters: its
temperature, pressure, and composition.
Mechanisms are discussed in the entry for
igneous rock.

When rocks melt they do so incrementally

and gradually; most rocks are made of
several minerals, all of which have
different melting points, and the
physical/chemical relationships controlling melting are complex. As a rock
melts, its volume changes. When enough rock is melted, the small globules of
melt (generally occurring in between mineral grains) link up and soften the
rock. Under pressure within the earth, as little as a fraction of a percent partial
melting may be sufficient to cause melt to be squeezed from its source. Melts
can stay in place long enough to melt to 20% or even 35%, but rocks are rarely
melted in excess of 50%, because eventually the melted rock mass becomes a
crystal and melt mush that can then ascend en masse as a diapir, which may
then cause further decompression melting.

2- Geochemical implications of partial melting

The degree of partial melting is critical for determining what type of magma
is produced. The degree of partial melting required to form a melt can be
estimated by considering the relative enrichment of incompatible elements
versus compatible elements. Incompatible elements commonly include
potassium, barium, caesium, rubidium.

Rock types produced by small degrees of partial melting in the Earth's mantle
are typically alkaline (Ca, Na), potassic (K) and/or peralkaline (high
aluminium to silica ratio). Typically, primitive melts of this composition form
lamprophyre, lamproite, kimberlite and sometimes nepheline-bearing mafic
rocks such as alkali basalts and essexite gabbros or even carbonatite.

Pegmatite may be produced by low degrees of partial melting of the crust.

Some granite-composition magmas are eutectic (or cotectic) melts, and they
may be produced by low to high degrees of partial melting of the crust, as well
as by fractional crystallization. At high degrees of partial melting of the crust,
granitoids such as tonalite, granodiorite and monzonite can be produced, but
other mechanisms are typically important in producing them.

3- Magma usage for energy production

The Iceland Deep Drilling Project, while drilling several 5000m holes in an
attempt to harness the heat in the volcanic bedrock below the surface of
Iceland, struck a pocket of magma at 2,100m. Being only the third time in
recorded history that magma had been reached, IDDP decided to invest in the
hole, naming it IDDP-1.

A cemented steelcase was constructed in the hole with a perforation at the

bottom close to the magma. The high temperatures and pressure of the magma
steam were used to generate 36MW of power, making IDDP-1 the world’s first
magma-enhanced geothermal system.

Evolution of Magmas

Primary melts

When a rock melts, the liquid is a primary melt. Primary melts have not
undergone any differentiation and represent the starting composition of a
magma. In nature it is rare to find primary melts. The leucosomes of
migmatites are examples of primary melts. Primary melts derived from the
mantle are especially important, and are known as primitive melts or primitive
magmas. By finding the primitive magma composition of a magma series it is
possible to model the composition of the mantle from which a melt was
formed, which is important in understanding evolution of the mantle.
Parental melts

Where it is impossible to find the primitive or primary magma composition, it

is often useful to attempt to identify a parental melt. A parental melt is a magma
composition from which the observed range of magma chemistries has been
derived by the processes of igneous differentiation. It need not be a primitive
melt.

For instance, a series of basalt flows are assumed to be related to one another.
A composition from which they could reasonably be produced by fractional
crystallization is termed a parental melt. Fractional crystallization models
would be produced to test the hypothesis that they share a common parental
melt.

Types of Magma and Characteristics of Magma

Types of magma are determined by chemical composition of the magma.

Three general types are recognized:

1. Basaltic magma -- SiO2 45-55 wt%, high in Fe, Mg, Ca, low in K, Na
2. Andesitic magma -- SiO2 55-65 wt%, intermediate. in Fe, Mg, Ca, Na,
K
3. Rhyolitic magma -- SiO2 65-75%, low in Fe, Mg, Ca, high in K, Na

Gases in Magmas

At depth in the Earth nearly all magmas contain gas dissolved in the liquid, but
the gas forms a separate vapor phase when pressure is decreased as magma
rises toward the surface. This is similar to carbonated beverages which are
bottled at high pressure. The high pressure keeps the gas in solution in the
liquid, but when pressure is decreased, like when you open the can or bottle,
the gas comes out of solution and forms a separate gas phase that you see as
bubbles. Gas gives magmas their explosive character, because volume of gas
expands as pressure is reduced. The composition of the gases in magma are:

 Mostly H2O (water vapor) with some CO2 (carbon dioxide)

 Minor amounts of Sulfur, Chlorine, and Fluorine gases
The amount of gas in a magma is also related to the chemical composition of
the magma. Rhyolitic magmas usually have higher dissolved gas contents
than basaltic magmas.
 Temperature of Magmas

Temperature of magmas is difficult to measure (due to the danger involved),

but laboratory measurement and limited field observation indicate that the
eruption temperature of various magmas is as follows:

 Basaltic magma - 1000 to 1200oC

 Andesitic magma - 800 to 1000oC
 Rhyolitic magma - 650 to 800oC.

Viscosity of Magmas

Viscosity is the resistance to flow (opposite of fluidity). Viscosity depends

on primarily on the composition of the magma, and temperature.

 Higher SiO2 (silica) content magmas have higher viscosity than lower
SiO2 content magmas (viscosity increases with increasing
SiO2 concentration in the magma).
 Lower temperature magmas have higher viscosity than higher
temperature magmas (viscosity decreases with increasing temperature
of the magma).
Thus, basaltic magmas tend to be fairly fluid (low viscosity), but their
viscosity is still 10,000 to 100,0000 times more viscous than
water. Rhyolitic magmas tend to have even higher viscosity, ranging
between 1 million and 100 million times more viscous than water. (Note
that solids, even though they appear solid have a viscosity, but it is very
high, measured as trillions time the viscosity of water). Viscosity is an
important property in determining the eruptive behavior of magmas.

Lava is red hot when it pours or blasts out of a vent but soon changes to dark red, gray,
black, or some other color as it cools and solidifies. Very hot, gas-rich lava containing abundant
iron and magnesium is fluid and flows like hot tar, whereas cooler, gas-poor lava high in silicon,
sodium, and potassium flows sluggishly, like thick honey in some cases or in others like pasty,
blocky masses.

Pahoehoe lava is much thinner and less viscous that aa’s lava. It can flow down the slopes
of a volcano in vast rivers. When it hardens, pahoehoe lava congeals into a thin crust that looks
very smooth. This type of lava can also from lava tubes, where the rocks hardens around a fast
moving liquis core. When that core flows out, a long tube, a long tunnel remains. Pahoehoe lava
erupts at temperature at 1100 to 1200oC.
 Pillow lava typically erupts from underwater volcano vents. As soon as the lava touches
the water, it cools down and forms a hardened shell. As more lava oozes out of the vent, the lava
shell cracks and more pillows come out of these cracks.

If the lava is a thin fluid (not viscous), the gases may escape easily. But if the lava is thick
and pasty (highly viscous), the gases will not move freely but will build up tremendous pressure,
and ultimately escape with explosive violence. Gases in lava may be compared with the gas in a
bottle of a carbonated soft drink. If you put your thumb over the top of the bottle and shake it
vigorously, the gas separates from the drink and forms bubbles. When you remove your thumb
abruptly, there is a miniature explosion of gas and liquid. The gases in lava behave in somewhat
the same way. Their sudden expansion causes the terrible explosions that throw out great masses
of solid rock as well as lava, dust, and ashes.

The violent separation of gas from lava may produce rock froth called pumice. Some of
this froth is so light--because of the many gas bubbles--that it floats on water. In many eruptions,
the froth is shattered explosively into small fragments that are hurled high into the air in the form
of volcanic cinders (red or black), volcanic ash (commonly tan or gray), and volcanic dust.

During the 1959 eruption of Kilauea Iki, fountaining lava and

volcanic debris completely blocked several of the roads in the
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
According to PHIVOLCS, the materials ejected from volcanoes are as follows:

A.Pyroclastic flow is the fast movement of a turbulent mass of fragmental volcanic materials
(ash and rocks) mixed with hot gases down the slope at speeds of more than 60 km per hour. The
high temperature of pyroclastic flows can burn everything along their math.

B.Lava flow is a streamlike flow of incandescent, molten rock materials erupted from a volcano.
Areas that are buried by lava flow will be unusable for long periods of time as the lava solidifies.

C.Ashfall or tephra fall is a shower of fine-to-coarse grained volcanic materials and other
airborne products of a volcanic eruption. Ashfall distribution or dispersal is dependent on
prevailing wind direction. When inhaled, the fine ash particles can cause respiratory problems.
The accumulation of ashfall can result to the collapse of residential roofs.

D. Lahar is a rapid-flowing thick mixture of volcanic material and water usually generated along
river channels by extreme rainfall. Lahar deposits can bury areas with volcanic debris several
meters thick.

E. Volcanic Gases refer to the high temperature mixture of water vapor, hydrogen sulfide, carbon
monoxide, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride released into the atmosphere. Volcanic
gases are harmful to health.

References:

http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/book/export/html/195

https://www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/volcano-hazards/pyroclastic-flows-move-fast-and-destroy-
everything-their-path

https://www.britannica.com/science/igneous-rock/Nature-of-magmas

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