Cell 4

:
CELL STRUCTURE AND

FUNCTIONS
2.0 Cell Structure And
Functions
2.1 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells
2.2 Microscopic structures of plant and animal
cells
2.3 Structure and functions : cell membrane
and organelles
2.4 Cells are grouped into tissues and organs
2.5 Transport across membrane
Learning Outcomes :
2.4 Describe the following typesof cells and tissues
i) Animal- epithelial cells, Nerve cell, Muscle cell and connective tissues
Animal Cells and Tissues

Learning Outcomes :
EPITHELIAL CELLS
●
Found at the outer layer of skin, lining of the
alimentary canal, lungs, blood vessels, duct &
body cavity
●
arranged compactly without any space
●
rest on a basement membrane
●
have a free surface
Learning Outcomes :

TYPES STRUCTURE FUNCTION DISTRIBUTION
Simple Squamous Cells are exchange the linings of

Epithelium
flattened. of material blood vessels
The sheet lubricates Alveoli

of cell is the
delicate and movement mouth cavity
thin . between
adjacent
surfaces. Bowmann
capsule
Learning Outcomes :

Simple Cuboidal Cells are Specialized Make up the

Epithelial Tissues
cubical in for secretion epithelia of
shape and kidney
absorption. tubules and
View from many glands
free surface – thyroid and
are salivary
polygonal. glands.
Learning Outcomes :

Simple Columnar Cells are Often located linings of small
Epithelial Tissues elongated at where intestine.
right angle to the secretion or
basement active
membrane. absorption is an Oviduct
 Relatively important
large function. nasal cavity.
cytoplasmic
volume.s - Goblet cell –
Free surface secrete mucus
have microvilli – to provide
increase surface protection
area against acid
Goblet cells and self
are found in digestion and
between cell lubrication.
Learning Outcomes :

Stratified Several layer of For Skin, mouth &
Squamous cells. protection vaginal lining
Epithelial Tissues
With only the
lower ones
cuboidal and
metabolically active
Division of lower
cells causes older
one to pushed
upward forward
surface, becoming
flattened as they
move.
Learning Outcomes :
NERVE CELL
NEURON
 The pathway of communication between the brain
and the body.
 Electrical impulses pass along the neurons from
stimuli receivers to the efectors.
 Neurons differ considerably in structure but all
neurons have three things in common;
i. Cell body (nucleus & cytoplasm)
ii. dendron or dendrite – (fine cytoplasmic fibre)
iii. Axon (single long fiber)
A Nerve Cell (Neuron)
Dendrites
Dendrites
Cell
CellBody
Body Myelin
Myelin Nodes of
Sheath
Sheath Ranvier
Axon
Axonofofanother
another Dendrites
Dendritesof
ofanother
another
10
neuron
neuron Axon
Axon neuron
neuron
Learning Outcomes :
NERVE CELL
NEURON STRUCTURE
DENDRITES – extensions – send the messages
towards the cell body.
DENDRONS – wide & break up into fine terminal

branches; conduct impulses towards the cell body
CELL BODY – diameter: 3-100μm; contains a

nucleus & other organelles
Learning Outcomes :
NERVE CELL
NEURON STRUCTURE
AXONS/NERVE FIBRES – long, thinner than

dendrons; send messages away from the cell body.
Some neuron enclosed in a MYELIN SHEATH…..
Formed from SCHWANN CELLS
Function: as electrical insulator; accelerates impulse

transmission
Learning Outcomes :
NERVE CELL
●
NEURON STRUCTURE
Myelinated sheath
Nerve fibre may be myelinated or non-myelinated
Myelinated – fibres are completely surrounded by a
fatty myelin sheath formed by many Schwann cells;
Nodes of Ranvier constricted the sheath at intervals
along its length
Non-myelinated – fibres do not possess nodes of
Ranvier & incompletely enclosed by a Schwann cell
Learning Outcomes :
NERVE CELL
●
NEURON STRUCTURE
Nodes of Ranvier
- small uncovered parts of axon between the
Schwann cells
- To speed up impulse transmission
-The cytoplasm of neurons cell body is densely

packed with mitochondria, ribosomes, golgi body
and rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Learning Outcomes :
NERVE CELL
MOTOR NEURON
Learning Outcomes :
MOTOR NEURON
Function - Transmit nerve

impulses from the central
nervous system to the
motor organs or effectors.
Typical location – brain

and spinal cord.
Learning Outcomes :
MUSCLE CELLS
- Most abundant tissue in the body
- Allows movement of bones and the skeleton to take place
- Differ in physical appearance, point of attachment, the

speed of contraction
Learning Outcomes :
MUSCLE CELLS
●
Types of muscle cell:
a) Skeletal/Striated
muscle.
b) Smooth muscle.
c) Cardiac muscle.
Learning Outcomes :
STRIATED/SKELETAL MUSCLE
- Known as voluntary muscle
- its contraction is stimulated consciously & under
voluntary nervous control
- Also called striated muscle
- striated & multinucleate
- Striations are produced by elements that can contract
called myofibrils
Learning Outcomes :
- hundreds to thousands of myofibrils arranged in the
striated muscle fibre
- many muscle fibres combine to form muscle bundles
- attached to the bones by tendons
- Each muscle fiber contracts by means of substructures
called myofibrils that contain highly ordered of actin &
myosin myofilaments – give the muscle fiber its striated
Appearance
- alternating light (I line) and dark bands (A line)
striations
Learning Outcomes :
Learning Outcomes :
SMOOTH MUSCLE
- Known as involuntary muscle
- Found in the walls of internal organs – Lining of digestive
tract, urinary bladder, blood vessel, respiratory tract etc.
- Individual smooth muscle cells are thin, elongate, no
striation & each cell has a nucleus
- The cells are arranged in parallel & form muscle layers
- Under the control of the autonomic nervous system
-Contract more slowly than skeletal muscle, can tolerate

long contractions & do not tired easily
Learning Outcomes :
SMOOTH MUSCLE
Learning Outcomes :
CARDIAC MUSCLE
 Form the contraction wall of the heart.
 Striated like skeletal muscle but have branched &
have 1-2 nucleus
 Under the control of the autonomic nervous system
like smooth muscle
 The ends of the cells are joined by intercalated disc
 Myogenic
Learning Outcomes :
CARDIAC MUSCLE
Learning Outcomes :
COMPARISON BETWEEN 3 TYPES OF MUSCLES

Smooth muscle Skeletal / Striated Cardiac muscle
muscle
1. Spindle-shaped Cylindrical shaped Cylindrical shaped
2. Unbranched fibre Unbranched fibre Branched fibre
3. Uninucleated Multinucleated Has 1 or 2 nuclei
4. Nucleus is centrally Nucleus are Nucleus are
located peripherally centrally located
located
5 Not striated striated Striated
6. Intercalated disc is Intercalated disc is Intercalated disc is
absent
absent present
Learning Outcomes :
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
●
The major types of
connective tissues in
vertebrates are:
a) Bone
b) Cartilage
c) Blood
Learning Outcomes :
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
Basic features:
- Matrix
- Fibres – FIBRIL - COLLAGEN, ELASTIC
- Cells – OSTEOCYTES, CONDHROCYTES,
ERYTHROCYTES.
Differences – MFC change according its own functions.

Learning Outcomes :
BONE
- Supporting the body of most vertebrates & protect softer
tissues
- Provide a jointed skeleton for muscle action
-Storage areas for calcium and phosphorus in the body
- There are 2 types of bone:

- compact bone: dense & heavy but extremely strong
- spongy bone: much lighter; seen in growing bones and
at the ends of long bones
Learning Outcomes :
BONE-STRUCTURE
- Structural unit of bone is called osteon/Harvesian system
- Each osteon has several layers of lamellae
- Lamellae are arranged in circles surrounding a central
Harvesian canal
- Harvesian canal contains blood vessels, lymph vessel and
nerve
- Each lamella consist of a group of bone cells called
osteocytes/osteoblast
- Osteocytes are found in lacunae
- Osteocytes are interconnected by canaliculli
Learning Outcomes :
BONE-STRUCTURE
- Osteocytes secrete hard and strong matrix
- Made up of collagen fibre and inorganic mineral

salt/calcium/hydroxyapatites
- Harvesian canal are interconnected by Volkman’s canal.

Learning Outcomes :
BONE-STRUCTURE
●
Structural unit – Haversian systems.
●
Haversian canal - Centre of each Haversian system.
●
Bone lamellae – Surround Haversian canal.
●
Lacuna – Small spaces filled with fluid
– Located between lamellae
– Supplied with blood capillaries from the
Haversian canal
– Connected with one another by fine vessels
called canaliculi
Learning Outcomes :
BONE-STRUCTURE
In the mature lacuna, its contain cells called osteocytes
(inactive bone cells).
- produce cytoplasmic extension into the canaliculi
- osteocytes from different lacunae are interconnected and
exchange substances through the canaliculi fluid
When extra bone substances is needed:

- osteocytes are stimulated and change quickly into bone-
forming cells called osteoblasts; deposit a matrix of
collagen.
Learning Outcomes :
BONE-STRUCTURE
Learning Outcomes :
BONE-STRUCTURE
Blood
vessel
Lacuna Haversian
canaliculi canal
Osteon
osteocyte
Learning Outcomes :
BONE-FUNCTION
- Give basic shape to the body
- Site of attachment for skeletal muscle and tendon
- Give support to the body.
- Protect the internal organs.
- Acts as storage areas for calcium & phosphorus in the

body.
- Site for blood cell production in the bone marrow.

Learning Outcomes :
HYALINE CARTILAGE- STRUCTURE

Perichondrium is the fibrous membrane surrounding
cartilage.
Perichondrium also produces the new cells for the

maintenance of cartilage that is torn or damaged.
Learning Outcomes :

- Protected by an outer
perichondrium layer
- Which produces
chondrocyte/chondroblast
- Chondrocyte near outer layer are

flattened in shape, in the inner
region are angular
- Chondrocytes are found in

lacunae surrounded by a capsule
Learning Outcomes :

- Each lacuna contain 1,2 or 4
chondrocytes
- Chondrocytes secretes soft and

elastics matrix called chondrin
- Matrix composed of chondroitin

sulphate and collagen
- Oxygen & nutrient diffuse from

blood vessels in the perichondrium
through the cartilage matrix to the
chondrocytes.
Learning Outcomes :

Learning Outcomes :
HYALINE CARTILAGE- MAIN LOCATION
Nose, ears, the rings that reinforce

the windpipe, caps on the ends of
some bones.
Learning Outcomes :
FUNCTION OF HYALINE CARTILAGE

- Chondrocytes which found in lacunae is for flexible
support
- Cover the ends of bones & reduces friction between

joints during movement.
- Forms the embryonic skeleton in many bony

vertebrates. Later, much of the cartilage is replaced by
bony tissue.
-Forms the skeleton of cartilaginous fish such as the

sharks & rays.
Learning Outcomes :
CONNECTIVE TISSUE - BLOOD

- The average adult has about 5 dm3 of blood.
- Is a connective tissue containing 45% blood cells
suspended in plasma 55%.
- The plasma consists of 90% water, salts and a variety of
dissolved proteins.
- Fluid matrix
- Ground substance is plasma
- Plasma consists of water, proteins, salts and a variety of
soluble chemical messengers such as hormones that is
transports from one part to another
- Main components of blood cell are erythrocytes, leucocytes
& platelets
Learning Outcomes :
CONNECTIVE TISSUE - BLOOD
BLOOD
PLASMA CELL
ERYTHROCYTES LEUCOCYTES PLATELET
GRANULOCYTES
NEUTROPHILS
EOSINOPHILS
BASOPHILS
AGRANULCYTES
MONOCYTES
LYMPHOCYTES
Learning Outcomes :
ERYTHROCYTES
●
5-6 million per mm3 of blood.
●
Biconcave disc, thinner in the
center than at its edges, 7 μm
diameter.
●
No nucleus.
●
Contain respiratory pigments -
haemoglobin
●
Life span: 120 days
●
Formed in bone marrow &
destroyed in the liver.
●
Major function – to transport
oxygen and carbon dioxide
Learning Outcomes :
LEUCOCYTES
●
Contain a nucleus & organelles
●
Haemoglobin absent.
●
Larger than erythrocyte.
●
Spherical or irregular in shape.
●
6000- 11000 per mm3 of blood.
●
Function – fight infections
●
2 basic types:
- granulocytes (72%)
- agranulocytes (28%)
Learning Outcomes :
LEUCOCYTES
5 major types:
Learning Outcomes :
GRANULOCYTES
a) Neutrophil
- 10-14 μm
- nucleus 3-5 lobes
- 70% of leucocytes
- Function:
Phagocytosis, especially
ingesting bacterial cells &
dead tissues cells in
wounds.
Learning Outcomes :
GRANULOCYTES
b) Eosinophil
- 10-14 μm
- nucleus 2-3 lobes
- 1.5% of leucocytes
- Function:
Plays a role in
allergy responses
Learning Outcomes :
GRANULOCYTES
c) Basophil
- 14-16 μm
- nucleus 2 lobes or S-
shaped
- 0.5% of leucocytes
- Function:
Contains heparin
which plays a role in
preventing blood
clotting in the body.
Learning Outcomes :
AGRANULOCYTES
a) Lymphocyte
- 8-10 μm
- smallest, round, large
nucleus.
- 24% of leucocytes
- Function:
Produces antibodies,
responsible for specific
immune responses
- B lymphocyte
- T lymphocytes
Learning Outcomes :
AGRANULOCYTES
b) Monocyte
- 16-20 μm, largest
- nucleus is large &
kidney-shaped
- 4% of leucocytes
- Function:
Macrophages are large,
phagocytic cells that
engulf antigens eg,
bacteria that enter the
body.
Learning Outcomes :
PLATELET
Not a type of cell
A fragment of cell cytoplasm

(megakaryocyte) that
originates from bone marrow
2 – 3 µm in diameter
Plays an important role in

blood clotting
Learning Outcomes :
Learning Outcomes :
ii) Plant – meristem, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem and phloem
PLANT TISSUES
Divided into 2 main types: meristematic tissues and

permanent tissues
Meristematic tissues: comprises young and actively

dividing cells
Permanent tissues: comprises more mature cells that are

either undergoing or have already undergone differentiation
Learning Outcomes :
PLANT TISSUES
Meristematic tissues
a. Xylem
•Parenchyma
• Epidermis i. Tracheid
•Collenchyma
• Periderm ii. Vessel
•Sclerenchyma
elements
b. Phloem
i. Sieve tube
ii. Companion cell
Learning Outcomes :
MERISTEM CELLS -STRUCTURE

- cells are small, thin-walled,
isodiametric
- have a central large nucleus,
compact with cytoplasm
- have a small vacuole.
- arrangement – compact – no spaces
in between
- unspecialized
- basic cells
- retain the ability to divide
continuously by mitosis
Learning Outcomes :
MERISTEM CELLS – location & function

●
growing root & shoot tips called apical meristem
- primary growth, increase in the stem and root
length of the plant.
●
peripheral areas of stems & roots called lateral
meristem or cambium – secondary growth,
increase girth of plants.
Learning Outcomes :
THE STRUCTURE OF SHOOT & ROOT

Learning Outcomes :
PARENCHYMA CELLS -STRUCTURE &

DISTRIBUTION
- Living cells with nucleus
- Isodiametric / spherical or
elongated shaped
- Thin and flexible primary cell wall
consist of cellulose, hemicellulose
and pectin
- A large central vacuole
- A thin layer of cytoplasm pushed
to the periphery
- Loosely packed – large
intercellular spaces
- located in the cortex, pith &
scattered within vascular bundle
Learning Outcomes :
PARENCHYMA CELLS -FUNCTION

- Large vacuole - allow it to stored
food / organic substances
- Large intercellular space - Allow
gaseous exchange
- Modified parenchyma, eg:
mesophyll cell contain chloroplast -
carry out photosynthesis
Some contain chromoplast - attract
pollination
- Form secondary tissue such as
cambium
Learning Outcomes :
COLLENCHYMA CELLS -STRUCTURE &

DISTRIBUTION
- living cells with nucleus
- Polygonal-shaped,elongated with
tapered ends
- cell walls are unevenly thickened at
their corner with deposit of cellulose,
hemicellulose & pectin
- Pits are present in the cell walls
- Cells are closely packed – less
- located below the epidermis – one
or two enveloping layers in dicot stem
above or below leaf veins
Learning Outcomes :
COLLENCHYMA CELLS - FUNCTION

- As supporting tissue to
herbaceous plant / young part of
plant
- Gives mechanical strength and

flexibility (which allow the cells to
expands as it grows)
Learning Outcomes :
SCLERENCHYMA CELLS -STRUCTURE &

DISTRIBUTION
- No nucleus when mature (dead
cells)
- Has evenly thickened, lignified
secondary wall – impermeable to
water, solutes,gaseous)
- Small lumen with pits present in
the cell walls
- cells are tightly packed -no
- 2 types
i)Fibres
ii)Sclereids (stone cells)
Learning Outcomes :
SCLERENCHYMA FIBRE -STRUCTURE,

DISTRIBUTION & FUNCTION
 Elongated, polygonal-shaped with tapered end

 hard, strong but flexible
 found below the epidermis of stems or roots,
in or around the vascular bundles, monocot
leaves
 Function
- supporting tissue
- tapered ends: increase combined strength
Learning Outcomes :
SCLERENCHYMA FIBRE
Learning Outcomes :
SCLERENCHYMA SLEREID -STRUCTURE,

DISTRIBUTION & FUNCTION
 Spherical/ isodiametric/ irregular shaped -
sclereids
 dead cells with thicker secondary lignified
walls
 usually found in hard-skinned fruits and
seeds
 Eg: gritty texture to pear fruits
 Function:
 protective tissue : strength & support to
the plants structure or organs from
mechanical damage
 Contribute to the hardness to nutshells
& seedcoats
Learning Outcomes :
XYLEM - VESSELS
●
wider, shorter, less
tapered than tracheids
●
cylindrical – empty cavity
in central of the cells
●
cell walls lignified –
impermeable to water
and solutes
●
cells dead at maturity
Learning Outcomes :
XYLEM - VESSELS
- have pits in walls
- vessel elements are

aligned end to end, forming
long micropipes known as
xylem vessels
- The ends are perforated,

enabling water to flow freely
Learning Outcomes :
TYPES OF VESSELS
i) Annular
ii) Spiralled
iii)Scalariform
iv)Reticulate
v) pitted
Learning Outcomes :
VESSEL ELEMENTS
Learning Outcomes :
XYLEM - TRACHEIDS
- longer, small diameter, thin
cells with tapered ends than
vessels.
- Cylindrical- empty cavity in
central of the cell
- cell wall lignified –
impermeable
- cells dead at maturity
- have pits in their walls
- water moves from cell to
cell mainly through pits
Learning Outcomes :
FUNCTION OF XYLEM
●
Transport water & mineral salts from root to the
upper parts of plants
●
Give mechanical support to the plants – lignified cell
walls enable xylem vessels & tracheids to resist
compression & tension
Learning Outcomes :
PHLOEM – SIEVE TUBE

●
Long & tube-like
structure formed from
long cells arranged end
to end
●
living cell, nucleus
disintegrates on maturity
but cytoplasm remains
●
cell wall only at primary
wall
Learning Outcomes :
PHLOEM – SIEVE TUBE
- The end wall each cell is

perforated to form a sieve
plate
- The pores of sieve plate

are penetrated by
cytoplasmic strands called
plasmodesmata
Learning Outcomes :
PHLOEM – COMPANION CELL

- Elongated, made up of
primary wall only
- Complete with nucleus

and organelle
- Play a role in the

movement of food into &
out of sieve tube
Learning Outcomes :
FUNCTION OF PHLOEM
Transport organic substances such as amino acid &

sucrose (sugar) from shoot to other part of plant
Learning Outcomes :
HOW CELLS ARE GROUP INTO TISSUES
& ORGAN
A cell is composed of molecules;
a tissue is made up of cells;
an organ is composed of tissues;
and the organism contains organ
systems.
These are the levels of organization
in the body of an animal
Learning Outcomes :
Learning Outcomes :

Cell 4

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CELL STRUCTURE AND

Animal Cells and Tissues

Animal Cells and Tissues

Simple Squamous Cells are exchange the linings of

The sheet lubricates Alveoli

Animal Cells and Tissues

Simple Cuboidal Cells are Specialized Make up the

Animal Cells and Tissues

Animal Cells and Tissues

DENDRONS – wide & break up into fine terminal

CELL BODY – diameter: 3-100μm; contains a

AXONS/NERVE FIBRES – long, thinner than

Function: as electrical insulator; accelerates impulse

- To speed up impulse transmission

-The cytoplasm of neurons cell body is densely

Function - Transmit nerve

Typical location – brain

- Most abundant tissue in the body

- Allows movement of bones and the skeleton to take place

- Differ in physical appearance, point of attachment, the

- Under the control of the autonomic nervous system

-Contract more slowly than skeletal muscle, can tolerate

COMPARISON BETWEEN 3 TYPES OF MUSCLES

Differences – MFC change according its own functions.

- Provide a jointed skeleton for muscle action

-Storage areas for calcium and phosphorus in the body

- There are 2 types of bone:

- Made up of collagen fibre and inorganic mineral

- Harvesian canal are interconnected by Volkman’s canal.

When extra bone substances is needed:

- Site of attachment for skeletal muscle and tendon

- Give support to the body.

- Protect the internal organs.

- Acts as storage areas for calcium & phosphorus in the

- Site for blood cell production in the bone marrow.

HYALINE CARTILAGE- STRUCTURE

Perichondrium also produces the new cells for the

HYALINE CARTILAGE- STRUCTURE

- Chondrocyte near outer layer are

- Chondrocytes are found in

HYALINE CARTILAGE- STRUCTURE

- Chondrocytes secretes soft and

- Matrix composed of chondroitin

- Oxygen & nutrient diffuse from

HYALINE CARTILAGE- STRUCTURE

HYALINE CARTILAGE- MAIN LOCATION

Nose, ears, the rings that reinforce

FUNCTION OF HYALINE CARTILAGE

- Cover the ends of bones & reduces friction between

- Forms the embryonic skeleton in many bony

-Forms the skeleton of cartilaginous fish such as the

CONNECTIVE TISSUE - BLOOD

CONNECTIVE TISSUE - BLOOD

Not a type of cell

A fragment of cell cytoplasm

Plays an important role in

Divided into 2 main types: meristematic tissues and

Meristematic tissues: comprises young and actively

Permanent tissues: comprises more mature cells that are

MERISTEM CELLS -STRUCTURE

MERISTEM CELLS – location & function

THE STRUCTURE OF SHOOT & ROOT