FUNCTION OF MUSCLES
separates muscle fascicles from each other.
1. Movement of the body. Contraction of skeletal
muscles is responsible for the overall
movements of the body, such as walking,
running, and manipulating objects with the
hands.
2. Maintenance of posture. Skeletal muscles
constantly maintain tone, which keeps us sitting
or standing erect.
3. Respiration. Muscles of the thorax carry out
breathing movements.
4. Production of body heat. When skeletal
muscles contract, heat is given off as a by-
product. This released heat is critical to the
maintenance of body temperature.
5. Communication. Skeletal muscles are involved
in all aspects of communication, including
speaking, writing, typing, gesturing, and facial
expressions.
6. Constriction of organs and vessels. The
contraction of smooth muscle within the walls
of internal organs and vessels causes those
structures to constrict. This constriction can
help propel and mix food and water in the
digestive tract, propel secretions from organs,
and regulate blood flow through vessels.
7. Contraction of the heart. The contraction of
cardiac muscle causes the heart to beat,
propelling blood to all parts of the body.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
1. Excitability – ability to receive and respond to a
stimulus
2. Contractility – ability to shorten when an
adequate stimulus is received
3. Extensibility – ability of the muscle to be
stretched beyond its normal length
4. Elasticity – ability of the muscle to recoil to its
original length.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE WRAPPINGS OF
SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Each skeletal muscle (such as the biceps brachii)
is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath
called the epimysium or muscular fascia.
 Each whole muscle is subdivided into numerous
visible bundles called muscle fascicles.
 A loose connective tissue called the perimysium
 Each fascicle is then subdivided into separate
muscle cells, called muscle fibers.
 A loose connective tissue called the
endomysium surrounds each muscle fiber.
MUSCLE FIBER STRUCTURE
A muscle fiber is a single cylindrical cell, with several
nuclei located at its periphery.
 The cell membrane of the muscle fiber is called
the sarcolemma. (sarco=flesh)
 Along the surface of the muscle fiber, the
sarcolemma has many tubelike inward folds,
called transverse tubules, or T tubules.
 T tubules occur at regular intervals along the
muscle fiber and extend into the center of the
muscle fiber.
 The T tubules are associated with enlarged
portions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
called the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
 The enlarged portions are called terminal
cisternae. T tubules connect the sarcolemma to
the terminal cisternae to form a triad
 The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber is called the
sarcoplasm
 Within the sarcoplasm, each muscle fiber
contains many bundles of protein filaments.
These bundles are called myofibrils
 Myofibrils consist of two major kinds of protein
fibers: actin myofilaments and myosin
myofilaments
The sarcomere is the basic structural and functional unit
of a skeletal muscle because it is the smallest portion of
a skeletal muscle capable of contracting.
 Structures called Z disks separate one
sarcomere from the next. A Z disk is a network
of protein fibers that forms a stationary anchor
for actin myofilaments to attach.
 Each sarcomere consists of two light-staining
bands separated by a dark-staining band. The
light-staining bands are called I bands. I bands
consist of only actin myofilaments.
 Each I band includes a Z disk and extends
toward the center of the sarcomere to the ends
of the myosin myofilaments.
  The central dark-staining band is called an A
band. Each A band extends the length of the
 The axon terminal is the presynaptic terminal.
myosin myofilaments within the sarcomere.
The space between the presynaptic terminal
 The actin and myosin myofilaments overlap for
and the muscle fiber membrane is the synaptic
some distance on both ends of the A band.
cleft.
 In the center of each A band is a smaller,
 The sarcolemma is the postsynaptic
lighter-staining region called the H zone. The H
membrane. Each presynaptic terminal contains
zone contains only myosin myofilaments.
many small vesicles, called synaptic vesicles.
 The M line consists of fine protein filaments
 These vesicles contain the neurotransmitter
that anchor the myosin myofilaments in place
called, acetylcholine, or ACh.
ACTION POTENTIALS  Neurotransmitters stimulate or inhibit
postsynaptic cells.
To initiate a muscle contraction, the resting membrane
potential must be changed. Changes in the resting SLIDING FILAMENT MODEL
membrane potential occur when gated cell membrane
The process of muscle contraction where actin
channels open.
myofilaments slide past myosin myofilaments during
o The increase in positive charge inside the cell contraction is called the sliding filament model of
membrane is called depolarization. muscle contraction.
o If the depolarization changes the membrane
TYPES OF GRADED RESPONSE
potential to a value called threshold, an action
potential is triggered. A muscle twitch is a single contraction of a muscle fiber
o Opening of gated K+ channels starts in response to a stimulus. Because most muscle fibers
repolarization of the cell membrane. are grouped into motor units, a muscle twitch usually
Repolarization is due to the exit of K+ from the involves all the muscle fibers in a motor unit. Because
cell. most muscle fibers are grouped into motor units, a
muscle twitch usually involves all the muscle fibers in a
NERVE SUPPLY AND MUSCLE FIBER STIMULATION
motor unit.
Skeletal muscle fibers do not contract unless they are
A muscle twitch has three phases:
stimulated by motor neurons
1. The lag phase, or latent phase, is the time
 Motor neurons are specialized nerve cells that
between the application of a stimulus and the
stimulate muscles to contract. Motor neurons
beginning of contraction.
generate action potentials that travel to skeletal
2. The contraction phase is the time during which
muscle fibers.
the muscle contracts
 Each branch forms a junction with a muscle
3. Relaxation phase is the time during which the
fiber, called a neuromuscular junction.
muscle relaxes.
 A more general term, synapse, refers to the
cell-to-cell junction between a nerve cell and Summation, individual muscles contract more
either another nerve cell or an effector cell, forcefully. Rapidly stimulating individual muscle fibers
such as in a muscle or a gland prevents relaxation, or detachment of cross-bridge.
 Neuromuscular junctions are located near the
Tetanus is a sustained contraction that occurs when the
center of a muscle fiber.
frequency of stimulation is so rapid that no relaxation
 A single motor neuron and all the skeletal
occurs.
muscle fibers it innervates constitute a motor
unit. It should be noted, however, that complete tetanus is
 The neuromuscular junction consists of several rarely achieved under normal circumstances and is
enlarged axon terminals resting in indentations more commonly an experimentally induced muscular
of the muscle fiber’s sarcolemma. response

Recruitment, more motor units are stimulated, which
increases the total number of muscle fibers contracting.
Thus, the muscle contracts with more force.
ENERGY FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION
 Aerobic respiration, which occurs mostly in
mitochondria, requires O2 and breaks down
glucose to produce ATP, CO2, and H2O. Aerobic
respiration can also process lipids or amino
acids to make ATP.
 Anaerobic respiration, which does not require
O2, breaks down glucose to produce ATP and
lactate.
TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS
There are two types of muscle contractions: isometric
and isotonic.
1. Isometric (equal distance) contractions increase
the tension in the muscle without changing its
length. Isometric contractions are responsible
for the constant length of the body’s postural
muscles, such as the muscles of the back.
2. Isotonic (equal tension) contractions have a
constant amount of tension while decreasing
the length of the muscle. Movements of the
arms or fingers are predominantly isotonic
contractions.
- Concentric contractions are isotonic
contractions in which muscle tension increases
as the muscle shortens
- Eccentric contractions are isotonic contractions
in which tension is maintained in a muscle, but
the opposing resistance causes the muscle to
lengthen
FIVE GOLDEN RULES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE ACTIVITY
1. With a few exceptions, all muscles cross at least
one joint
2. Typically, the bulk of the muscle lies proximal to
the joint crossed
3. All muscles have at least 2 attachments  origin
& insertion
4. Muscles can only pull; they never push
5. During contraction, the muscle insertion moves
toward the origin
General Principles
o The majority of our muscles extend from one
bone to another and cross at least one joint. At
each end, the muscle is connected to the bone
by a tendon
o Aponeuroses are broad, sheetlike tendons.
o A retinaculum is a band of connective tissue
that holds down the tendons at each wrist and
ankle.
o The origin is the most stationary, or fixed, end
of the muscle. In the case of multiple origins,
each origin is called a head.
o The insertion is the end of the muscle attached
to the bone undergoing the greatest
movement.
o The specific body movement a muscle
contraction causes is called the muscle’s action.
o The action of a single muscle or group of
muscles (agonist) is opposed by that of another
muscle or group of muscles (antagonist).
o Members of a group of muscles working
together to produce a movement are called
synergists.
o Among a group of synergists, if one muscle
plays the major role in accomplishing the
desired movement, it is called the prime mover.
o Fixators are muscles that hold one bone in
place relative to the body while a usually more
distal bone is moved.
TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENTS
o Flexion- Decreases the angle of the joint and
brings 2 bones closer together (Bending the
knee or elbow)
o Extension – Opposite of flexion- increases the
angle between 2 bones (Straightening the knee
or elbow)
o Hyperextension- Extension >180 degrees
(Tipping your head back so your chin points
toward the ceiling)
o Rotation- Movement of a bone around its
longitudinal axis; Common with ball and socket
joints  describes the movement with the atlas
around the dens of the axis (Shaking your head
“no”)
o Abduction – Moving a limb away from the
midline of the body; Fanning movement of
fingers, toes
o Adduction – Movement of a limb towards the
body midline; Opposite of abduction
 o Circumduction – Combination of flexion,  Muscle cells are elongated (muscle cell = muscle
extension, abduction and adduction. Proximal fiber)
end of limb is stationary, distal end moves in a  Contraction of muscles is due to the movement
circle Limb as a whole outlines a cone of microfilaments
 All muscles share some terminology:
Special Movements
o Prefix myo refers to muscle
o Dorsiflexion - Lifting the foot so that its superior o Prefix mys refers to muscle
surface approaches the shin o Prefix sarco refers to flesh
o Plantar flexion -Pointing the toes
Types of Muscle Tissue
o Inversion - To invert the foot- turn the sole
medially Skeletal muscle
o Eversion -To evert the foot- turn the sole
 Most are attached by tendons to bones
laterally
 Cells are multinucleate
o Supination- Forearm rotates laterally so that
 Striated – have visible banding
the palm faces anteriorly, and the radius and
 Voluntary – subject to conscious control
ulna are parallel (Carry “soup” --> “soup”-
 Cells are surrounded and bundled by connective
inating)
tissue
o Pronation- Forearm rotates medially so the
palm faces posteriorly (Face down)
o Opposition- Action by which you move your
thumb to touch the tips of the other fingers on
the same hand Connective Tissue Wrappings of Skeletal Muscle

 Endomysium – around single muscle fiber

 Perimysium – around a fascicle (bundle) of
fibers
 Epimysium – covers the entire skeletal muscle
 Fascia – on the outside of the epimysium

Skeletal Muscle Attachments

 Epimysium blends into a connective tissue

attachment
 Tendon – cord-like structure
 Aponeuroses – sheet-like structure

Sites of muscle attachment:

 Bones
 Cartilages
 Connective tissue coverings

The Muscular System- muscles are responsible for all Smooth Muscle
types of body movement  Has no striations
Three basic muscle types are found in the body:  Spindle-shaped cells
 Single nucleus
1. Skeletal muscle  Involuntary – no conscious control
2. Cardiac muscle  Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs
3. Smooth muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Characteristics of Muscles
 Has striations
  Usually has a single nucleus
 Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated
disc
 Involuntary
 Found only in the heart
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
o Cells are multinucleate
o Nuclei are just beneath the sarcolemma
o Sarcolemma – specialized plasma membrane
o Sarcoplasmic reticulum – specialized smooth
endoplasmic reticulum
o Myofibril- bundles of myofilaments. Myofibrils
are aligned to give distinct bands
o I band = light band
o A band = dark band
o Sarcomere- contractile unit of a muscle fiber
Organization of the sarcomere
o Thick filaments = myosin filaments. Composed
of the protein myosin and has ATPase enzymes
o Thin filaments = actin filaments. Composed of
the protein actin
o Myosin filaments have heads (extensions, or
cross bridges)
o Myosin and actin overlap somewhat
o At rest, there is a bare zone that lacks actin
filaments
o Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) – for storage of
calcium
Nerve Stimulus to Muscles
 Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a nerve
to contract
 Motor unit- one neuron. Muscle cells
stimulated by that neuron
 Neuromuscular junctions – association site of
nerve and muscle
 Synaptic cleft – gap between nerve and muscle.
Nerve and muscle do not make contact.
- Area between nerve and muscle is filled with
interstitial fluid
Transmission of Nerve Impulse to Muscle
 Neurotransmitter – chemical released by nerve
upon arrival of nerve impulse. The
neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle is
acetylcholine.
 Neurotransmitter attaches to receptors on the
sarcolemma
 Sarcolemma becomes permeable to sodium
(Na+)
 Sodium rushing into the cell generates an action
potential
 Once started, muscle contraction cannot be
stopped
The Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction
 Activation by nerve causes myosin heads
(crossbridges) to attach to binding sites on the
thin filament
 Myosin heads then bind to the next site of the
thin filament
 This continued action causes a sliding of the
myosin along the actin
 The result is that the muscle is shortened
(contracted)
Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle
 Muscle fiber contraction is “all or none”
 Within a skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be
stimulated during the same interval
 Different combinations of muscle fiber
contractions may give differing responses
Graded responses – different degrees of skeletal muscle
shortening
Types of Graded Responses:
1. Twitch
- Single, brief contraction
- Not a normal muscle function
2. Tetanus (summing of contractions)
- One contraction is immediately followed by
another
- The muscle does not completely return to a
resting state
- The effects are added
3. Unfused (incomplete) tetanus
- Some relaxation occurs between contractions
- The results are summed
4. Fused (complete) tetanus
- No evidence of relaxation before the following
contractions
 - The result is a sustained muscle contraction
Muscle Response to Strong Stimuli
 Muscle force depends upon the number of
fibers stimulated
 More fibers contracting results in greater
muscle tension
 Muscles can continue to contract unless they
run out of energy
Energy for Muscle Contraction
 Initially, muscles used stored ATP for energy
- Bonds of ATP are broken to release energy
- Only 4-6 seconds worth of ATP is stored by
muscles
 After this initial time, other pathways must be
utilized to produce ATP
 Direct phosphorylation
- Muscle cells contain creatine phosphate (CP)
- CP is a high-energy molecule
 After ATP is depleted, ADP is left
 CP transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate ATP
 CP supplies are exhausted in about 20 seconds
Aerobic Respiration
 Series of metabolic pathways that occur in the
mitochondria
 Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and
water, releasing energy
 This is a slower reaction that requires
continuous oxygen
Anaerobic glycolysis
 Reaction that breaks down glucose without
oxygen
 Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to
produce some ATP
 Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid
Anaerobic glycolysis (continued)
 This reaction is not as efficient, but is fast
 Huge amounts of glucose are needed
 Lactic acid produces muscle fatigue
Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Debt
 When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable to
contract
 The common reason for muscle fatigue is
oxygen debt
- Oxygen must be “repaid” to tissue to remove
oxygen debt
- Oxygen is required to get rid of accumulated
lactic acid
 Increasing acidity (from lactic acid) and lack of
ATP causes the muscle to contract less
Types of Muscle Contractions
 Isotonic contractions
- Myofilaments are able to slide past each other
during contractions
- The muscle shortens
 Isometric contractions
- Tension in the muscles increases
- The muscle is unable to shorten
Muscle Tone
 Some fibers are contracted even in a relaxed
muscle
 Different fibers contract at different times to
provide muscle tone
 The process of stimulating various fibers is
under involuntary control
Effects of Exercise on Muscle
o Results of increased muscle use
o Increase in muscle size
o Increase in muscle strength
o Increase in muscle efficiency
o Muscle becomes more fatigue resistant
Muscles and Body Movements
 Muscles are attached to at least two points
Origin – attachment to a moveable bone
Insertion – attachment to an immovable bone
Types of Muscles
 Prime mover – muscle with the major
responsibility for a certain movement
 Antagonist – muscle that opposes or reverses a
prime mover
 Synergist – muscle that aids a prime mover in a
movement and helps prevent rotation
 Fixator – stabilizes the origin of a prime mover
NERVOUS SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
 1. Receiving sensory input - Sensory receptors
monitor numerous external and internal stimuli
2. Integrating information - The brain and spinal
cord are the major organs for processing
sensory input and initiating responses.
3. Controlling muscles and glands. - Skeletal
muscles normally contract only when
stimulated by the nervous system.
4. Maintaining homeostasis - This function
depends on the nervous system’s ability to
detect, interpret, and respond to changes in
internal and external conditions.
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity -
The brain is the center of mental activity,
including consciousness, memory, and thinking
DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the
brain and spinal cord.
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consists of all
the nervous tissue outside the CNS, including
nerves and ganglia
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Sensory division, or afferent (toward) division-
conducts action potentials from sensory
receptors to the CNS . The neurons that
transmit action potentials from the periphery to
the CNS are called sensory neurons.
2. Motor division, or efferent (away) division-
conducts action potentials from the CNS to
effector organs, such as muscles and glands.
The motor division can be further subdivided based on
the type of effector being innervated.
1. The somatic nervous system transmits action
potentials from the CNS to skeletal muscles.
2. The autonomic (self-governing) nervous
system (ANS) transmits action potentials from
the CNS to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and
glands.
- autonomic nervous system, in turn, is divided
into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
The neurons that transmit action potentials from the
CNS toward the periphery are called motor neurons.
Enteric nervous system (ENS) is a unique subdivision of
the peripheral nervous system. The ENS has both
sensory and motor neurons contained wholly within the
digestive tract.
NEURONS - receive stimuli, conduct action potentials,
and transmit signals to other neurons or effector
organs.
A neuron has three parts:
1. Each neuron cell body contains a single nucleus.
2. Dendrites are short, often highly branching
cytoplasmic extensions that are tapered from
their bases at the neuron cell body to their tips.
Dendrites usually receive information from
other neurons or from sensory receptors and
transmit the information toward the neuron cell
body.
3. Each neuron has an axon, a single long cell
process extending from the neuron cell body.
The area where the axon leaves the neuron cell body is
called the axon hillock.
Types of Neurons
1. Multipolar neurons have many dendrites and a
single axon. Most of the neurons within the CNS
and nearly all motor neurons are multipolar.
2. Bipolar neurons have two processes: one
dendrite and one axon. Bipolar neurons are
located in some sensory organs, such as in the
retina of the eye and in the nasal cavity.
3. Pseudo-unipolar neurons have a single process
extending from the cell body. This process
divides into two processes a short distance from
the cell body. One process extends to the
periphery, and the other extends to the CNS.
Supporting cells
Glial cells (neuroglia) are the supportive cells of the CNS
and PNS, meaning these cells do not conduct action
potentials. Instead, glial cells carry out different
functions that enhance neuron function and maintain
normal conditions within nervous tissue.
Most neuroglia retain the ability to divide, whereas
neurons do not.
1. Astrocytes serve as the major supporting cells
in the CNS.
- stimulate or inhibit the signaling activity of
nearby neurons.
 - participate with the blood vessel endothelium
to form a permeability barrier, called the blood-
brain barrier, between the blood and the CNS
2. Ependymal cells line the fluid-filled cavities
(ventricles and canals) within the CNS.
- produce cerebrospinal fluid, and others, with
cilia on the surface, help move the
cerebrospinal fluid through the CNS.
3. Microglia act as immune cells of the CNS. They
help protect the brain by removing bacteria and
cell debris.
4. Oligodendrocytes provide an insulating
material that surrounds axons.
5. In the PNS, the glial cells known as Schwann
cells provide insulating material around axons.
Myelin sheaths are specialized layers that wrap around
the axons of some neurons. These myelin sheaths are
formed by the cell processes of glial cells
Gaps in the myelin sheath, called nodes of Ranvier
occur about every millimeter between the
oligodendrocyte segments or between individual
Schwann cells.
Organization of Nervous Tissue
 Gray matter consists of groups of neuron cell
bodies and their dendrites, where there is very
little myelin
 In the CNS, gray matter on the surface of the
brain is called the cortex
 Clusters of gray matter located deeper within
the brain are called nuclei.
 In the PNS, a cluster of neuron cell bodies is
called a ganglion
 White matter consists of bundles of parallel
axons with their myelin sheaths, which are
whitish in color
 White matter of the CNS forms nerve tracts, or
conduction pathways, which propagate action
potentials from one area of the CNS to another.
 White matter of the PNS consists of bundles of
axons and associated connective tissue that
form nerves
 the cerebellum and other parts of the CNS.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
REGIONS OF THE BRAIN
 Cerebral hemispheres
 Diencephalon
 Brain stem
 Cerebellum
BRAINSTEM
The brainstem connects the spinal cord to the
remainder of the brain. It consists of the medulla
oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain. The brainstem
contains several nuclei involved in vital body functions,
such as the control of heart rate, blood pressure, and
breathing.
 Medulla oblongata is the most inferior portion
of the brainstem and is continuous with the
spinal cord. The medulla oblongata contains
ascending and descending nerve tracts, which
convey signals to and from other regions of the
brain.
 Immediately superior to the medulla oblongata
is the pons. Some of the nuclei in the pons
relay information between the cerebrum and
the cerebellum.
 The midbrain, just superior to the pons, is the
smallest region of the brainstem. The dorsal
part of the midbrain consists of four mounds
called the colliculi. The two inferior colliculi are
major relay centers for the auditory nerve
pathways in the CNS. The two superior colliculi
are involved in visual reflexes and receive touch
and auditory input
 Scattered throughout the brainstem is a group
of nuclei collectively called the reticular
formation. It is particularly involved in
regulating cyclical motor functions, such as
respiration, walking, and chewing. The reticular
formation is a major component of the reticular
activating system, which plays an important
role in arousing and maintaining consciousness
and in regulating the sleep-wake cycle.
CEREBELLUM
The cerebellum is attached to the brainstem by several
large connections called cerebellar peduncles. These
connections provide routes of communication between
  The cerebellum is involved in maintaining  The frontal lobe is important in the control of
balance and muscle tone and in coordinating voluntary motor functions, motivation,
fine motor movement. aggression, mood, and olfactory (smell)
reception.
DIENCEPHALON
 The parietal lobe is the principal center for
The diencephalon is the part of the brain between the receiving and consciously perceiving most
brainstem and the cerebrum. Its main components are sensory information, such as touch, pain,
the thalamus, the epithalamus, and the hypothalamus. temperature, and balance.
 The occipital lobe functions in receiving and
 The thalamus is by far the largest part of the perceiving visual input and is not distinctly
diencephalon. Shaped somewhat like a yo-yo, separate from the other lobes.
with two large, lateral parts connected in the  The temporal lobe is involved in olfactory
center by a small interthalamic adhesion. (smell) and auditory (hearing) sensations and
 Most sensory input that ascends through the plays an important role in memory.
spinal cord and brainstem projects to the
thalamus.
 The epithalamus is a small area superior and
posterior to the thalamus. It consists of a few
small nuclei, which are involved in the
emotional and visceral response to odors, and
the pineal gland.
 The pineal gland is an endocrine gland that may
influence the onset of puberty and may play a
role in controlling some longterm cycles that
are influenced by the light-dark cycle.
 The hypothalamus is the most inferior part of
the diencephalon; Plays a central role in the
control of body temperature, hunger, and thirst.
Sensations such as sexual pleasure, rage, fear,
and relaxation after a meal are related to
hypothalamic functions. The hypothalamus
plays a major role in controlling the secretion of
hormones from the pituitary gland
 A funnel shaped stalk, the infundibulum
extends from the floor of the hypothalamus to
the pituitary gland.
 The mammillary bodies form externally visible
swellings on the posterior portion of the
hypothalamus. The mammillary bodies are
involved in emotional responses to odors and in
memory.

CEREBRUM

 The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It

is divided into left and right hemispheres by a
longitudinal fissure. The most conspicuous
features on the surface of each hemisphere are
numerous folds called gyri and intervening
grooves called sulci
The Nervous System

Sensory input – gathering information

- To monitor changes occurring inside and

outside the body
- Changes = stimuli

Integration

- To process and interpret sensory input and

decide if action is needed

Motor output

- A response to integrated stimuli

- The response activates muscles or glands

Structural Classification of the Nervous System