+

MUSCULARSYST myosin myofilaments; joined end to end to form the

EM
Functions (M2RPC3)
1. Movement of the body.
2. Maintenance of posture.
3. Respiration
4. Production of body heat
5. Communication
6. Constriction of organs and vessels
7. Contraction of the heart
Characteristics of the Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal Muscle
§ Constitutes approx. 40% of body weight
§ Muscles are attached to the skeletal system
§ Also called Striated Muscle; transverse bands or
striations
Major Functional Characteristics of Skeletal
Muscle
1. Contractility – ability to shorten with force
2. Excitability – capacity to respond to a stimulus
3. Extensibility – ability to be stretched to their
normal resting length
4. Elasticity – ability to recoil to their original
resting length
Skeletal Muscle Structure
Connective Tissue Coverings of Muscle
Epimysium/Muscular fascia – connective tissue
sheath
that surrounds a skeletal muscle
Muscle fasciculi – numerous visible bundles that
make
up the muscle
Perimysium – loose connective tissue that surrounds
the
muscle fasciculi
Muscle fibers – several muscle cells that composes a
fasciculus
Endomysium – loose connective tissue that
surrounds a
muscle fiber
Muscle Fiber Structure
Sarcolemma – cell membrane of the muscle fiber
Transverse tubules (T tubules) – tube-like
invaginations
w/c occur at regular intervals along the muscle fiber
Sarcoplasmic reticulum – highly organized smooth
E.R.;
has a relatively high concentration of Ca2+ (muscle
contraction)
Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of a muscle fiber
Myofibrils – threadlike structures composed of:
Ø Actin Myofilaments (thin filaments; purple)
Ø Myosin Myofilaments (thick filaments; green)
Sarcomere – highly ordered, repeating units of actin
myofibril
Actin and Myosin Myofilaments
Troponin molecules – binding sites for Ca2+;
attached at
specific intervals along the actin myofilaments
Tropomyosin filaments – cover the attachment sites
on
the actin myofilaments; located along the grove bet.
the
twisted strands of actin myofilaments
Myosin heads – resemble golf club heads;
Ø Bind to attachment sites
Ø Bend and straighten
Ø Break down ATP
Sarcomere
§ Basic structural and functional unit of skeletal
muscle
Z disk – network of protein fibers forming an
attachment site for actin myofilaments
I band – consists of actin myofilaments; spans each
Z
disk
A band – darker, central region that extends the
length
of the myosin of myofilaments
H zone – second light zone that consists of myosin
myofilaments
M line – dark-staining bands
The arrangement of the actin and myosin filaments
in
sacromeres gives the myofibrils a banded
appearance.
The alternating I bands and A bands of the
sacromeres
are responsible for the striations in the skeletal
muscle
fibers.
Excitability of Muscle Fibers
Resting membrane potential – cell membranes have
a
negative charge on the inside relative to a positive
charge outside; occurs bcos there is an uneven
distribution of ions
1. Concentration of K+ inside the cell CM >
outside the CM
2. Concentration of Na+ outside the CM > inside
the CM
Different types of Ion Channels
Ø Nongated/Leak channels – always open
Ø Chemically gated channels – closed until a
chemical binds them and stimulates them to
open
Depolarization – the inside of the CM membrane
comes
more positive than the outside of the cell; Na+ ions
move into cells
Repolarization – the change back to the resting
membrane potential; K+ ions moves out of cells
Action Potentials – the rapid depolarization and
repolarization of the CM; results in muscle
contraction
Nerve Supply
Motor neurons – specialized nerve cells that
stimulate
muscles to contract
Neuromuscular junction – a branch that forms a
junction with a muscle fiber
Synapse – cell-to-cell junction bet. a nerve cell and
another nerve cell/effector cell
Motor unit – a single motor neuron and all the
skeletal
muscle fibers it innervates
Presynaptic terminal – enlarged axon terminal
Synaptic cleft – the space bet. the presynaptic
terminal
and the muscle fiber membrane
Postsynaptic membrane – the muscle fiber
membrane
Synaptic vesicles – presynaptic terminal that
contains
small vesicles
Acetylcholine (ACh) – neurotransmitter contained in
the vesicles; a molecule released by a presynaptic
nerve
cell that stimulates/inhibits a postsynaptic cell
Acetylcholinesterase – an enzyme that rapidly
breaks
down the synaptic cleft bet. the neuron and the
muscle
fiber
Muscle Contraction
Sliding filament model – sliding of actin
myofilaments
past myosin myofilaments during contraction
Cross-bridges – myosin heads attach to the myosin
attachment sites on the actin myofilaments
Muscle Twitch, Summation, Tetanus, Recruitment
Muscle Twitch – contraction of a muscle fiber in
reponse to a stimulus
1. Lag/Latent Phase – time bet. the application of a
stimulus and the beginning of contraction
2. Contraction Phase – time during which the
muscle contract
3. Relaxation Phase – time during which the
muscle relaxes
Summation – the force of contraction of an
individual
muscle fiber is increased by rapidly stimulating them
Tetanus – convulsive tension; a sustained
contraction
that occurs when the frequency of stimulus is so rapid
that no relaxation occurs
Ø Caused by Ca+ build up in the myofibrils
Recruitment – the no. of muscle fibers contraction is
increased by the increasing no. of motor units
stimulated
+ muscle contracts with more force
Stimulus frequency – no. of times a motor neuron is
stimulated per second
Energy Requirement for Muscle Contraction
Aerobic Respiration – requires O2; breaks down
glucose
to produce ATP, CO2, H2O
Anaerobic respiration – doesn’t require O2; breaks
down glucose to yield ATP and lactic acid
Creatine phosphate – high-energy molecule that can
be
stored in muscle fibers
Fatigue
§ A state of reduced work capacity
Muscular Fatigue – when muscle fibers use ATP
faster
than they are produced; when the effectiveness of
Ca+ to
stimulate actin + myosin is reduced
Physiological contracture – muscles may become
incapable of either contracting or relaxing
Psychological fatigue – involves the CNS; an
individual
perceives that continued muscle contraction is
impossible
Type of Muscle Contractions
Isometric contractions – equal distance; length of
the
muscle does not change; the amount of tension
increases
during the contraction process
Isotonic contraction – equal tension; the amount of
tension produced by the muscle is constant during
contraction; length of the muscle decreases
Ø Cocentric contractions – isotonic; muscle
tension increases as the muscle shortens
Ø Eccentric contractions – isotonic; tension is
maintained in a muscle; the opposing resistance
causes the muscle to lengthen
Muscle Tone
§ Constant tension produced by body muscles
over long periods of time
§ Responsible for keeping the back and legs
straight, the head in an upright position, and the
abdomen from bulging
Slow-Twitch and Fast-Twitch Fibers
Classification of Muscle Fiber
1. Slow Twitch – contains type I myosin; contracts
slowly and resistant to fatigue respiration
2. Fast Twitch
a. Type IIa – intermediate speed; more
fatigue resistant than type IIb
b. Type IIb – contract 10x faster than type
I flattens
Myglobin – stores oxygen temporarily
Hypertrophy – enlarging of muscle fibers
Satellite cells – undifferentiated cells just below the
endomysium
Smooth and Cardiac Muscle
Autorhythmicity – resulting periodic spontaneous
contraction of smooth muscle
Intercalated disks – specialized structures that
facilitate
action potential conduction bet. cells
Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
General Principles
Tendon – muscle connected to a bone
Aponeuroses – broad, sheet like tendons
Retinaculum – a band of CT that holds down the
tendons at each wrist and ankle
Origin – head; most stationary end of the muscle
Insertion – end of the muscle attached to the bone
undergoing the greatest movement
Belly – part of the muscle bet. the origin & the
insertion
Agonist – muscle that accomplishes a certain
movement
Antagonist – muscle acting in opposition to an
agonist
Synergists – a group of muscles working together to
produce a movement
Prime Mover – muscle that plays the major role in
accomplishing desired movement
Fixators – muscles that hold one bone in place
relative to
the body
Nomenclature
1. Accdg. To Location – temporalis, frontalis,
pectoralis, brachialis
2. Accdg. To Origin and Insertion – sterno
(sternum), cleido (clavicle), mastoid (mastoid
process), brachio (arm), radialis (radius)
3. Accdg. To Number of Origin – biceps (2),
triceps, quadriceps
4. Accdg. To Function – flexor (flexion)
5. Accdg. To Size – maximus (largest), minimus
(smallest), vastus (large)
6. Accdg. To Shape – deltoid (triangle), orbicularis
(circular)
7. Orientation of Fasciculi – rectus (straight)
I. Muscles of the Head and Neck
Facial Expression
Occipitofrontalis – raises the eyebrows
Orbicularis oculi – encircle the eyes, tightly close
the
eyelids, and causes crow’s feet wrinkles
Orbicularis oris – encircles the mouth
Buccinator – kissing muscles; pucker the mouth;
the cheeks I whistling/blowing
Zygomaticus – elevate the upper lip and corner of
the
mouth
Levator labile superioris – sneering; elevates one
side of
the upper lip
Depressor anguli oris – frowning & pouting;
depresses
the corner of the mouth
Mastification (for chewing)
Temporalis – fan-shaped muscle
Masseter – seen & felt on the side of the head
Pterygoid (paired) – protraction, excursion, elevation
of
mandible
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
Intrinsic muscles – located within the tongue and
change its shape
Extrinsic muscles – attached to and move the tongue
Hyoid muscles – hold the hyoid bone; elevate the
larynx
Pharyngeal elevators – elevate the pharynx
Pharyngeal constrictors – constrict the pharynx
from
superior to inferior (forcing food into the esophagus);
also open the auditory tube
Neck Muscles
Sternocleidomastoid – prime mover of the lateral
muscle group; rotates the head; flexes the neck or
extends the head; prayer muscle
Torticollis – wryneck; injury to the
sternocleidomastoid
Deep neck muscles – flexes/extends head and neck
Trapezius – extends and laterally flexes neck
II. Trunk Muscles
Muscles Moving the Vertebral Column
Erector spinae – responsible for keeping the back
straight and the body erect
Deep back muscles – responsible for several
movements
of the vertebral column
External intercostal – elevate the ribs during
inspiration
Internal intercostal – contract during forced
expiration,
depressing the ribs
Diaphragm – major movement produced in the
thorax
during quiet breathing
Scalenes – inspiration and rib elevation
Abdominal Wall Muscles
Linea alba – tendinous area of the abdominal wall
that
consists of white connective tissue
Rectus abdominis – located on each side of the linea
alba
Tendinous intersections – causes the abdominal
wall of
a lean, well-muscled person to appear segmented
External/Internal abdominal oblique &
Transversus
abdominis – flex and rotate the vertebral column or
compress the abdominal contents
Pelvic Floor and Perineal Muscles
Pelvic Floor – pelvic diaphragm
Levator ani – muscle that forms the pelvic floor
Perineum – associated with the male/female
reproductive structures
Perineum bulbospongiosus – constricts the urethra;
erects the penis, clitoris
Perineum ischiocavernosus – compresses the base
of
penis/clitoris
Perineum external anal sphincter – keeps the
orifice of
the anal canal closed
III. Upper Limb Muscles
Scapular Movements
§ Attach the scapula to the thorax and move the
scapula
§ Acts as fixators to hold the scapula firmly in
position when the muscle of the arm contract
§ Move the scapula into different positions
v Trapezius
v Levator scapulae
v Rhomboids
v Serratus anterior
v Pectoralis minor
Arm Movements
Pectoralis major – adducts the arm and flexes the
shoulder; extend the shoulder from a flexed position
Latissimus dorsi – swimmer’s muscle; medially
rotates
and adducts the arm and powerfully extends the
shoulder
Rotator cuff muscles – attached the humerus to the
scapula and forms a cuff/cap over the proximal
humerus
Deltoid – attaches the humerus to the scapula and
clavicle; major abductor of the upper limb
Forearm Movements
Triceps brachii – primary extensor of the elbow
Biceps brachii & brachialis – primary flexors of the
elbow
Brachioradialis – posterior forearm muscle; helps
flex
the elbow
Supination and Pronation
Supinator – supination of the forearm or turning the
flexed forearm so that the palm is up
Pronator – pronation, turning other forearm so that
the
palm is down
Wrist and Finger Movements
Retinaculum – fibrous connective tissue that covers
the
flexor & extensor tendons and holds them in place
around the wrist
Flexor carpi – flex the wrist
Extensor carpi – extend the wrist
Flexor digitorum – flexor of the digits/fingers
Extensor digitorum – extension of the fingers
Intrinsic hand muscles – 19 muscles located within
the
hand
Interossei – responsible for abduction and adduction
of
the fingers
Tennis elbow – inflammation and pain due to
forceful,
repeated contraction of the wrist extensor muscles
Palmus longus – tightens palm skin
IV. Lower Limb Muscles
Thigh Movements
Iliopsoas – flexes the hip
Tensor fasciae latae – helps steady the femur on the
tibi
when a person is standing
Gluteus maximus – extends the hip; adducts and
laterally rottes the thigh; contributes most of the mass
Gluteus medius – extends the hop when the thigh is
flexed at a 45O angle; common site for injections in
the
buttocks (sciatic nerve lies deep to the g. maximus)
Leg Movements
Quadriceps femoris – primary extensors of the knee
Sartorius – tailor’s muscle; longest muscle in the
body;
flexes the hip and knee; rotates the thigh laterally for
sitting cross legged
Hamstring muscles – flexing the knee
Adductor muscles – adducting the thigh
Ankle and Toe Movements
Gastrocnemius & Soleus – form the bulge of the
calf
Calcaneal tendon – Achilles tendon; flexors and are
involved in plantar flexion of the foot
Fibularis muscles – primary everters of the foot; aid
in
plantar flexion
Intrinsic foot muscles – flex, extend, abduct, and
adduct
the toes
Extensor digitorum longus – extends 4 lateral toes,
everts foot

Extensor halluces longus – extends great toe; inverts

foot
Tibialis anterior – inverts foot
Fibularis tertius – everts foot
Flexor digitorum longus – flexes 4 lateral toes,
inverts NervousSystem
foot Functions (CRIME)
Flexor halluces longus – flexes great toe, inverts 1. Controlling muscles and glands.
foot 2. Receiving sensory input.
Tibialis posterior – inverts foot 3. Integrating information.
Fibularis brevis – everts foot 4. Maintaining homeostasis.
Fibularis longus – everts foot 5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity.
Effects of Aging on Skeletal Muscle Divisions of the Nervous System
§ Decreased muscle mass I. Central Nervous System
§ Slower reaction time § Brain and spinal cord
§ Reduced stamina Peripheral Nervous System
II.
§ Increased recovery time § Nerves and ganglia
Types of Muscular Tissue a. Sensory Division – afferent (toward)
I. Skeletal (striated voluntary) division; conducts action potentials
§ Large, long, cylindrical cells from sensory receptors to the CNS
§ Multinucleated • Sensory neurons – neurons
§ Attached to bones that transmit action potentials
§ Responsible for body movement from the periphery to the CNS
I i. Somatic Sensory Fibers – carry
Cardiac (striated involuntary) info from stimuli coming from
I
§ Cylindrical cells the skin, skeletal, muscles,
.
joints
§ Branched and connected to one another by
ii. Visceral Sensory Fibers –
intercalated disks transmits impulses coming from
§ Single nucleated the visceral organs
§ Found in the heart b. Motor Division – efferent (away)
§ Pumps the blood division; conducts action potentials
III. Smooth (nonstriated involuntary) from the CNS to effector organs
§ End tapered cells • Motor neurons – neurons that
§ Single nucleated transmit action potentials
from the CNS toward the
§ Found in hollow organs: stomach, intestine;
periphery
skin, eyes
i. Somatic Motor Nervous
§ Regulates size of organs, forces fluid through System / Voluntary –
tubes, controls the amount of light entering the transmits action potentials
eye, produces ‘goose bumps’ form the CNS to the skeletal
muscles
Autonomic Motor Nervous
ii.
System / Involuntary –
transmits action potentials
from the CNS to cardiac,
smooth muscles and glands
1. Sympathetic – fight-or-flight system
2. Parasympathetic – protect the brain by removing bacteria and cell
resting and digesting
system
Enteric Nervous
iii.
System –
unique subdivision; both
sensory and motor neurons
contained within the digestive
tract
Cells of the Nervous System
Neurons
§ Also called nerve cells
§ Receive stimuli, conduct action potentials,
transmit signals
Cell body – contains a single nucleus; source of
information for gene expression n
Dendrites – extensions of the cell body; receive
information from other neurons; transmit the info
toward the neuron cell body
Axon – single long cell process; conduct action
potentials from one part of the brain or spinal cord to
another part
Ø Axon of sensory neurons – conduct action
potentials towards the CNS
Ø Axon of motor neurons – conduct action
potentials away from the CNS
Axon hillock – where the axon leaves the neuron cell
body
Nissl bodies – rough ER found in the cell body of a
neuron
Schwann cells – form a myelin sheath (increases
speed
of impulse transmission)
Collateral axons – branches of axons
Types of Neurons
1. Multipolar neurons – many dendrites + a single
axon
2. Bipolar neurons – two processes: 1 dendrite + 1
axon
3. Pseudo-unipolar neurons – single process that
divides into 2 processes: extends to the
periphery + extends to the CNS
Neuroglia
§ Non-neuronal cells of the CNS + PNS
§ More numerous than neurons
§ Retain the ability to divide
1. Astrocytes – major supporting cells in the CNS;
stimulate/inhibit the signaling activity of nearby
neurons; help limit damage to neural tissue
v Blood brain barrier – protects neurons from
toxic substances in the blood; allows
exchange of waster products + nutrients
2. Ependymal cells – produce cerebrospinal fluid;
help move the cerebrospinal fluid through the CNS
3. Microglia – act as immune cells of the CNS’
debris
4 – 5. Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells
(PNS) – provide an insulating material that
surrounds axons
Neural Signaling
§ Communication among neurons
1. Reception – stimuli received by visual receptors
in the eye
2. Transmission – sensory neurons transmit info to
CNS
3. Integration – info given is interpreted and an
appropriate response is determined
4. Transmission – the CNS transmits info to motor
neurons
5. Actual response – muscle/glands receive info
and instruction from motor neurons
Myelin Sheaths
§ Highly specialized insulating layer of cells
Unmyelinated axons – action potentials are
conducted
slowly bcos in travels along the entire axon
Myelinating axons – action potentials are conducted
rapidly by salutatory conduction
Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in the myelin sheath; where
ion movement can occur
Organization of Nervous Tissue
Gray Matter – groups of neuron cell bodies + their
dendrites; very little myelin
Ø In the CNS;
v Cortex – GM on the surface of the brain
v Nuclei – GM located deeper within the
brain
Ø In the PNS;
v Ganglion – a cluster of neuron cell
bodies
White Matter – bundles of parallel axons + myelin
sheaths
Ø In the CNS
v Nerve tracts – conduction pathways;
propagate action potentials from one
area of the CNS to another
Ø In the PNS;
v Nerves – bundles of axons + connective
tissue sheaths
Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
Resting Membrane Potential
Polarized cell membrane – uneven distribution of
charge
Resting membrane potential – uneven charge
distribution in an unstimulated/resting cell; polarized
Ø Higher concentration of K+ inside CM
Ø Higher concentration of Na+ outside CM
Ø Greater permeability of CM to K+ than to Na+
Leak channels – always open Reflexes
Gated channels – closed until opened by specific Reflex – an involuntary reaction in response to a
signals stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to
Chemically gated channels – opened by the
neurotransmitters CNS
Voltage gated channels – opened by a change in Reflex arc – neuronal pathway by which a reflex
membrane potential occurs
Sodium potassium pump – required to maintain the
greater concentration of Na+ outside the Excitatory or
Acetylcholine Alzheimer disease
CM and K+ inhibitory
inside Cocaine and
Norepinephrine Excitatory
amphetamines
Action Potentials Generally Mood, anxiety, and
Serotonin
inhibitory sleep induction
Excitable cells – RMP changes in response Excitatory or
Dopamine Parkinson disease
to stimuli inhibitory
that activate gated ion channels Gamma
Treatment of
Local current – Na+ diffuses quickly into aminobutyric Inhibitory
epilepsy
cell acid
Depolarization – a change that causes the Glycine Inhibitory Poison strychnine
inside of the Opiates morphine
Endorphins Inhibitory
CM to become positive and heroin
Local potential – result of depolarization Ø Sensory receptor
Threshold value – attainable local potential (critical Ø Sensory neuron
pt.) Ø Interneurons
Action potential – constitution of depolarization and Ø Motor neuron
repolarization Ø Effector organ (muscle or glands)
Hyperpolarization – the charge on the CM briefly Neuronal Pathways
becomes more negative than the RMP Converging pathway – two or more neurons
All-or-none fashion – threshold is reached = action synapse
potential occurs; if the threshold is not reached = with the same neuron
action Diverging pathway – the axon from one neuron
potential doesn’t occur divides
Continuous conduction – the action potential is and synapses with more than one other neuron
conducted along the entire axon CM Summation – allows integration of multiple sub
Saltatory conduction – action potentials jump from threshold local potentials; brings the membrane
one potential to threshold and trigger an action potential
node of Ranbier to the next Spatial summation – local potentials originate from
The Synapse diff.
Synapse – a junction where the axon of one neuron locations on the postsynaptic neuron
interacts with another Temporal summation – local potentials overlap in
Presynaptic terminal – end of the axon time
Postsynaptic membrane – membrane of the dendrite
or
effector cell
Synaptic cleft – space separating the presynaptic &
Spinalcord
§ Extends from the foramen magnum to the 2nd
postsynaptic membrane lumbar vertebra
§ Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and
Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers
from the brain
Synaptic vesicles – where neurotransmitters are
Cauda equina – inferior end of the SC; spinal nerves
stored
exiting there resemble a horse’s tail
Hyperpolarized – the inside of the postsynaptic cell
2 Main Functions
tends to become more negative
1. Transmits info to and from the brain.
Substance Effect Clinical Example
2. Controls many reflex activities of the body.
White Matter of the SC
1. Dorsal (posterior) the periphery
2. Ventral (anterior) Lateral corticospinal – muscle tone and skilled
3. Lateral Columns movements (hand)

a. Ascending tracts – conduct action S

I. Olfactory S: smell
potentials toward the brain
b. Descending tracts – conduct action S
potentials away from the brain II. Optic S: vision
Gray Matter of the SC (shaped like the letter H) M: 4-6 extrinsic
1. Posterior horns eye
2. Anterior horns Oculomot
III. M muscles; P:
3. Small lateral horns or
constricts
Central canal – fluid filled space in the center of pupils
the cord Trochlea M M: 1 extrinsic eye
Ventral root – formed by ventral rootlets; IV.
r muscle
Dorsal root – formed by dorsal rootlets
B S: face + teeth; M:
Dorsal root ganglion – ganglion in a dorsal root Trigemin
V. muscles of
Relfex Action al
mastification
§ Predictable, automatic response to a specific
M M: 1 extrinsic eye
stimulus VI. Abducens
1. Reception of the stimulus. muscle
2. Transmission of info to the CNS. S: taste; M: facial
3. Integration (interpretation and determination B muscles;
VII. Facial
of P: salivary + tear
an appropriate response). glands
4. Transmission of info from the CNS to a Acoustic /
muscle. Vestibulo S S: hearing +
VIII.
5. Actual response. coch balance
Spinal Cord Reflexes lear
Knee-Jerk Reflex S: taste + touch to
Stretch flex – simplest reflex; muscles contract back of
Glossoph
in tongue; M:
IX. aryng B
response to a stretching force applied to them pharyngeal
-eal
Knee-jerk reflex – patellar reflex; used to muscles; P:
determine if salivary glands
the higher CNS centers that normally influence S: pharynx, larynx,
this viscera;
reflex are functional M: palate,
Withdrawal Reflex X. Vagus B pharynx, larynx;
Withdrawal Reflex – flexor reflex; to remove a P: viscera of
limb thorax +
from a painful stimulus abdomen
Ascending Tracts Accessor M M: 2 neck + upper
XI.
§ Pathways that carry impulses form the y back muscles
periphery to various parts of the brain Hypoglos M
Spinothalamic tract – transmits pain, light XII. M: tongue muscles
sal
touch, and Anterior corticospinal – muscle tone and movement
deep pressure of
Dorsal column – transmission of proprioception, trunk muscles
touch, Rubrospinal – movement coordination
deep pressure, vibration Reticulospinal – posture adjustment
Spinocerebellar tracts – proprioception to Vestibulospinal – posture & balance
cerebellum Tectospinal – movement in response to visual
Descending Tracts reflexes
§ Pathways that carry impulses from the brain to Cranial Nerves
§ Transmit info to the brain form the sensory
receptors
§ 12 pairs
Name Specific Function
Spinal Nerves
§ Arise along the spinal cord; contains mixed
nerves
§ 31 pairs
v 8 Cervical
v 12 Thoracic
v 5 Lumbar
v 5 Sacral
v 1 Coccygeal
Mixed nerves – contains both sensory and somatic
motor neurons
Plexuses – where nerves come together and then
separate
Ø Cervical plexus
Ø Brachial plexus
Ø Lumbosacral plexus
Cervical Plexus
§ Originates from spinal nerves C1 to C4
Phrenic nerve – most important branc of the CP;
innervates the diaphragm (responsible for our ability
to
breathe)
Brachial Plexus
§ Originates from the spinal nerves C5 to T1
1. Axillary nerve – innervates 2 shoulder muscles
+ the skin over part of it
2. Median nerve – innervates the anterior forearm
and intrinsic muscles
3. Radial nerve – innervates all the muscles in the
posterior arm and forearm + skin over the
posterior surface of the arm, forearm, hand
4. Musculocutaneous nerve – innervates the
anterior muscles of the arm + skin over the
radial surface of the forearm
5. Ulnar nerve – innervates most of the anterior
forearm muscles and some of the intrinsic hand
muscles + skin over the radial side of the hand
Lumbosacral Plexus
§ Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
1. Obturator nerve – innervates the muscles of the
medial thigh + skin over it
2. Femoral nerve – innervates the anterior thigh
muscles + skin over it & medial side of the leg
3. Tibial nerve – innervates the posterior thigh
muscles, the anterior & posterior leg muscles,
most of the intrinsic foot muscles + skin over the
sole of the foot
4. Common fibular nerve – innervates the muscles
of the lateral thigh & leg, some intrinsic foot
muscles + skin over the anterior & lateral leg,
dorsal surface of the foot
Sciatic nerve – CT sheath that bounds the tibial and
common fibular nerve
Autonomic Nervous System
§ Preganglionic neuron
§ Postganglionic neuron
§ Maintain internal homeostasis
Autonomic ganglia – where preganglionic neurons
synapse with postganglionic neurons
I. Sympathetic ANS
§ ‘Fight-or-flight’
§ Prepares the body for action
§ Most active during stressful situations
§ Norepinephrine (main neurotransmitter)
II. Parasympathetic ANS
§ Activities result in conserving and restoring
energy
§ Helps return the body to resting conditions
§ Active during periods of calm and rest
§ PS fibers are in the vagus nerve
Autonomic Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine – neurotransmitters of the
parasympathetic division
Norepinephrine – postganglionic neurons of the
sympathetic division
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Division
§ Prepares a person for action by increasing HR,
BP, respiration, release of glucose
Parasympathetic Division
§ Involuntary activities at rest: digestion of food,
defecation, urination
Enteric Nervous System
§ Consists of plexus within the wall of the
digestive tract
1. Sensory neurons – connect the digestive tract to
the CNS
2. Sympathetic & parasympathetic neurons –
connect the CNS to the digestive tract
3. Enteric neurons – located entirely within enteric
plexus
v Capable of monitoring and controlling
the digestive tract independently of the
CNS
Brain
§ Soft, wrinkled mass of tissue that is highly
complex and adaptive; 3 pounds
§ 25 billion neurons
§ Requires a continuous supply of oxygen and
glucose
I. Brainstem
§ Connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the
brain
 § Controls the heart rate, blood pressure, and
IV.
breathing
§ Damage can cause death
1. Medulla Oblongata
§ Most inferior portion of the brainstem
§ Important reflex actions like vomiting, sneezing,
coughing, swallowing
§ Gray matter consists of various nuclei that serve
as vital centers
v Cardiac centers – control HR
v Vasomotor centers – regulates BP bu
controlling blood vessel diameter
v Respiratory centers – initiates and
regulates breathing
§ Pyramids – two prominent enalargements
2. Pons (bridge)
§ Relay information bet. the cerebrum and the
cerebellum
§ Resembles an arched footbridge
§ Regulates respiration, swallowing, sleep
3. Midbrain
§ Smallest region of the brainstem
§ 4 mounds called the colliculi
v 2 inferior; major relay centers for the
auditory nerve pathways in the CNS
v 2 superior; visual reflexes and receive
touch and auditory input
4. Reticular Formation
§ A group of nuclei scattered throughout the
brainstem
§ Regulating cyclical motor functions; respiration,
walking, chewing
§ Damage can result in coma
§ Reticular activating system – plays an
important role in arousing and maintaining
consciousness
Diencephalon
II.
§ Part bet. the brainstem and the cerebrum
1. Thalamus
§ Largest part of the diencephalon
§ Major relay center for all sensory info (except
smell) to the cerebrum; plays a gating rol
§ Influences mood and registers an uncomfortable
perception of pain
§ Interthalamic adhesion – connects the two
large, lateral parts of the thalamus
2. Epithalamus
§ Smallest area superior + posterior to the
thalamus
§ Consists of few small nuclei (emotional and
visceral response to odors) + pineal gland
Pineal gland – an endocrine gland that may
Cerebrum
§ Largest and most prominent part of the brain
influence
the onset of puberty; role in controlling some long
term
cycles
3. Hypothalamus
§ Most inferior part
§ Consists of several small nuclei; maintaining
homeostasis
§ Control of body temp., hunger, and thirst
§ Sensations such as sexual pleasure, rage, fear,
and relaxation
Important Homeostatic Mechanisms
1. Control center of the ANS.
2. The link bet. the nervous and endocrine
systems.
3. Helps maintain fluid balance.
v Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) –
regulates water excretion by the kidneys
4. Regulates body temperature.
5. Regulates food intake (appetite and satiety
centers).
6. Regulates sleep-wake cycles.
7. Influences sexual behavior and emotional
aspects of sensory input.
Infundibulum – controlling the secretion of
hormones
from the pituitary gland
Mammillary bodies – involved in emotional
responses
to odors and in memory
III. Cerebellum
§ Second largest part of the brain; 2 hemispheres
§ Responsible for coordination of movements
§ Comparator – a sensing device that compares
data from two sources
§ Proprioceptive neurons – innervate joints,
tendons, muscles; provide info about the
position of body parts
1. Helps in smooth and coordinated body
movements (comparator function).
2. Maintains muscle tone posture.
3. Maintain balance and equilibrium
4. Important in learning motor skills.
1. Sensory Function – receives info from sensory
receptors and interprets it
2. Motor Function – responsible for all voluntary
movement and some involuntary ones
3. Association Function – responsible for all of the
intellectual activities of brain
4 Lobes
1. Frontal Lobe
§ Control of voluntary motor functions,
motivation, aggression, mood, olfactory
reception
§ Primary motor area: consciously move our
skeletal muscles
§ Broca’s area – speech center
§ Prefrontal area – reposible for executive
functions
2. Parietal Lobe
§ General Sensory Area – receives info from the
sensory receptors in the skin and joints
§ Wernicke’s area – sensory speech area
3. Occipital Lobe
§ Receiving and perceiving visual input
§ Primary visual area – receives visual info
§ Visual association area – portion where visual
info is integrated
4. Temporal Lobe
§ Primary auditory area – center for reception of
auditory messages
§ Auditory association area – where auditory
messages are integrated
§ Psychic cortex – abstract thoughts and
judgments
Gyri – folds and convolutions; increase the surface
area
of the cortex and intervening grooves (sulci)
Sulci – shallow grooves
Fissures – deep groves
Longitudinal fissure – divides the cerebrum into left
and right hemispheres
Cerebral cortex – outermost layer of the cerebrum;
consists of gray matter
Corpus callosum – connects the right and left
hemispheres
Central sulcus – separates the frontal and parietal
lobes
Lateral fissure – separates the temporal love from
the
rest
Insula – fifth lobe; deep within the fissure
Basal Nuclei
§ Group of functionally related nuclei
Corpus striatum – located deep within the cerebrum
Substantia nigra – darkly pigmented cells in the
midbrain
Right and Left Hemispheres
Right hemisphere – three dimensional or spatial
perception, musical ability
Left Hemisphere – analytical hemisphere;
mathematics
and speech
Memory
Working memory – stores info required for the
immediate performance of a task; 7 digit phone no.
Short-term memory – last longer; can be retained
for a
few mins. to a few days
Long-term memory – stored for only a few minutes
or
become permanent by consolidation
Consolidation – a gradual process involving the
formation of new and stronger synaptic connections
Declarative memory – explicit memory; retains
facts and
related emotional undertones
Procedural memory – reflexive memory;
development
of motor skills
Memory engrams – memory traces; long-term
retention
of a thought/idea
Limbic System
§ A group of interconnected nuclei involved in
memory and regulation of emotion
Hippocampus – formation and retrieval of memories
Amygdala – filter sensory info and evaluates it in
terms
of emotional needs
Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
Meninges
§ Surround and protect the brain and spinal cord
1. Dura mater – most superficial and thickest
meninges
v Epidural space – bet. the dura mater &
the vertebrae
v Epidural anesthesia – clinically
important as the injection site of spinal
nerves; given to women during
childbirth
2. Arachnoid mater – thin, wispy, 2nd meningeal
membrane
v Subdural space – space bet. the dura
mater and the arachnoid mater; contains
small amt. of serous fluid
v Spinal block – to inject anesthetic into
the area
v Spinal tap – to take a sample of CSF
3. Pia mater – 3rd meningeal membrane; very
tightly bound to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord; filled with CSF and contains blood
vessels Speech
Sensory speech area – Wernicke area; a portion of
v Subarachnoid space – bet. the the
arachnoid and pia matter parietal lobe
Ventricles Motor speech area – Broca area; inferior portion of
§ Fluid filled cavities the
Lateral ventricle – relatively large cavity in each frontal lobe
cerebral Aphasia – absent/defective speech/language
hemisphere comprehension
Third ventricle – a smaller, midline cavity Brain Waves and Consciousness
Fourth ventricle – located at the base of the Electroencephalogram (EEG) -
cerebellum Brain waves – wave like patterns
Cerebral aqueduct – a narrow canal that connects Alpha waves – awake but in a quiet, resting state
the 3rd with
and 4th ventricle eyes close
Cerebrospinal fluid Beta waves – occur during intense mental activity
§ Provides a protective cushion around the CNS Delta waves – occur during deep sleep in infants and
Choroid plexus – produces CSF; specialized in
structures patients
made of ependymal cells Theta waves – observed in children; also in adults
Arachnoid villi – structures that project from the who
arachnoid layer; where blood is reabsorbed are frustrated or have brain disorders
Hydrocephalus – accumulation of CSF in the Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
ventricles § Motor functions decline
Motor Functions § Mental functions (memory) decline
Involuntary movements – occur without a
conscious
thought
Voluntary movements – consciously activated to
SENSES
achieve a specific goal; walking, typing § Ability to perceive stimuli
Upper motor neurons – have cell bodies in the Sensation/Perception – conscious awareness of
cerebral stimuli
cortex received
Lower motor neurons – have cell bodies in the
anterior
GENERALSENSE
horn
Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
S
Primary motor cortex – control voluntary § Have receptors distributed over the body
movements of § Senses for touch, pressure, pain, temp.,
skeletal muscles vibration, itch, proprioception
Premotor area – where motor functions are 1. Somatic Senses – provide sensory info about the
organized body and the environment
before they are actually initiated in the primary motor 2. Visceral Senses – provide info about various
cortex internal organs (pain & pressure)
Pre-frontal area – where planning and initiating Transduction – a receptor absorbs energy from
movements occur stimulus
Other Brain Functions Sensory Receptors – sensory nerve endings capable
Communication bet. the Right & Left of
Hemispheres responding to stimuli by developing action potentials
Commissures – connection bet. the two hemispheres 1. Mechanoreceptors – mechanical stimuli
Corpus callosum – largest commissure 2. Chemoreceptors – chemicals (odor molecules)
3. Photoreceptors – light
4. Thermoreceptors – temperature changes
5. Nociceptors – sensation of pain
6. Free nerve endings – simplest and most
common receptors
Ø Cold receptors – decreasing temp.; stop
responding at below 12OC
Ø Warm receptors – increasing temp.; stop
responding above 47 OC
7. Touch receptors – structurally more complex;
enclosed by capsules
8. Merkel disks – light touch and superficial
pressure
9. Hair follicle receptors – light touch
10. Meissner corpuscles – fine, discriminative
touch; localizing tactile sensations
11. Ruffini corpuscles – continuous pressure in
skin
12. Pacinian corpuscles – deepest receptors; deep
pressure, vibration, position
Pain
§ Unpleasant perceptual and emotional
experiences
1. Superficial Pain – localized; rapidly conducted
action potentials
2. Deep/Visceral Pain – diffuse; action potentials
are propagated more slowly
Local anesthesia – injected near a sensory
receptor/nerve resulting in reduced pain
General anesthesia – loss of consciousness is
produced;
affects reticular formation
Gate control theory – inhibits action potentials
carried
to the brain by the spinothalamic tract
Referred Pain
§ Originate in a region of the body that is not the
source of the pain stimulus
§ Clinically useful in diagnosing the actual cause
of the painful stimulus
§ Occurs bcos the sensory neurons (from the
superficial area) to which the pain is referred,
and the neurons (from the deeper, visceral area)
where the pain stimulation originates, converge
onto the same ascending neurons in the spinal
cord; thus the brain can’t distinguish
SPECIALSENSES
§ Localized to specific parts of the body
§ Smell, taste, sight, hearing, balance
OLFACTION
§ Sense of smell
Occurs in response to airborne molecules
Odorants – airborne molecules
Olfactory neurons – bipolar neurons
Olfactory epithelium – lines the superior part of the
nasal cavity
Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
§ Axons of the olfactory neurons form the
olfactory nerves, which enter the olfactory
bulb. Olfactory tracts carry action potentials
from the olfactory bulbs to the olfactory cortex
of the brain.
Olfactory bulb – where olfactory neurons synapse
with
interneurons
Olfactory tracts – relays action potentials to the
brain
Olfactory cortex – where each olfactory tract
terminates
Adaptation – feedback + temporary decreased
sensitivity
TASTE
Taste buds – detect taste stimuli
Papillae – enlargements on the surfaced of the
tongue
Taste cells – 40 specialized epithelial cells
Taste hairs – hair-like processes
Taste pore – tiny opening in the surrounding
stratified
epithelium
Taste sensations
1. Sour
2. Salty
3. Bitter
4. Sweet
5. Umami (savory)
Neuronal Pathways for Taste
1. Facial Nerve (7) – transmits taste sensations
from the anterior of the tongue
2. Glossopharyngeal nerve (9) – carries taste
sensations from the posterior of the tongue
3. Vagus nerve (10) – carries some taste sensations
form the root of the tongue
4. Gustatory portion of the brainstem nuclei
5. Thalamus
6. Taste area (Insula)
VISION
Orbits – bony cavities where the eyes are housed
Accessory Structures of the Eye
§ Protect, lubricate, and move the eye • Ciliary muscles – smooth muscles
Eyebrows – protect the eyes by preventing • Suspensory ligaments – attached
perspiration the perimeter of the lens
from running down • Lens – flexible, biconvex,
Eyelids – protect the eyes form foreign objects transparent disc
v Blinking – occurs about 20 times/min.; keeps o Cataract – opacity of lens
the eyes lubricated Ø Iris – colored part of the eye; regulates
Conjunctiva – thin, transparent mucous membrane diameter of the pupil
covering the inner surface of the eyelids; lubricate the • Pupil – controls the amt. of light
surface of the eye entering the eyes
v Conjunctivitis – inflammation of the o Parasympathetic – light
conjunctiva intensity increases; pupillary
Lacrimal Apparatus constriction
v Lacrimal gland – produces tears o Sympathetic – light intensity
Ø Lacrimal canaliculi – small ducts where decreases; pupillary dilation
excess tears are collected v Nervous tunic – innermost tunic
Ø Lacrimal duct – enlargement of Ø Retina – covers the posterior 5/6 of the
nasolacrimal duct eye
v Nasolacrimal duct – opens into the nasal cavity • Pigmented retina – keeps light from
Extrinsic Eye Muscles – 6 skeletal muscles that reflecting back into the eye
accomplish movement of each eyeball • Sensory retina – contains rods &
v Rectus muscles cones (photoreceptors) which
Ø Superior rectus – rolls eye upwards respond to light
Ø Inferior rectus – rolls eye downward a. Rods – can function in very dim
Ø Lateral rectus – turns eye outward light; doesn’t provide color
Ø Medial rectus – turns eye inward vision
v Oblique muscles – two muscles to the long axis; o Rhodopsin – photosensitive
superior and inferior pigment; breaks down into:
Ø Superior oblique – rotates counterclock § Opsin – colorless
Ø Inferior oblique – rotates clockwise protein
Anatomy of the Eye § Retinal – yellow
Eyeball – hollow, fluid-filled sphere pigment
Tunics – 3 layered wall of the eye o Night blindness – difficulty
v Fibrous tunic – sclera + cornea seeing in dims light; caused
Ø Sclera – firm, white, outer connective by vit. A deficiency
tissue; maintains the shape of the eye b. Cones – require more light;
provide color vision
Ø Cornea – transparent, permits light to
o Red, Blue, Green – major
enter; refracts the entering light;
types of color sensitive
‘window of the eye’
opsin
v Vascular tunic – contains most of the blood
o Color blindness – caused
vessels of the eye
by lack of three cone types
Ø Choroid – thin structure that consists of
o Partial color blindness –
melanin containing pigment cells
lack of one cone type
(causing black appearance); absorbs
o Retinal detachment –
light so that it is not reflected inside
separation of sensory retina
Ø Ciliary body – responsible for from the pigmented retina
accommodation; near objects = CM Regions of the Retina
contracts + lens become rounder; far 1. Macula lutea – small, yellow spot near the
objects = CM relaxes + lens become center of the posterior retina
ovoid
Ø Fovea centralis – region of sharpest
vision; where light is most focused
2. Optic disc – white spot through which a no. of
blood vessels enter the eye;
Ø Blind spot of the eye – contains no
photoreceptor cells and doesn’t respond
to light
Chambers of the Eye
v Anterior chamber
Posterior chamber
Ø Bet. the cornea and lens
Ø Aqueous humor – watery fluid; helps
maintain pressure within the eye,
refracts light, provides nutrients
Ø Glaucoma – increase in the intraocular
pressure due to blockage of AH flow
v Vitreous chamber
Ø Posterior to the lens
Ø Vitreous humor – transparent, jelly-like
substance; helps maintain pressure
within the eye, holds the lens and retina
in place; does not circulate
Functions of the Eye
1. Light Refraction
Ø Focal point – crossing point
Ø Focusing – causes light to converge
2. Focusing Images on the Retina
Ø Accommodation – causes greater
refraction of light; enables the eye to
focus on images
Neuronal Pathways for Vision
§ Light passes through cornea, through the
aqueous humor, through the lens, through the
vitreous humor, image forms on photoreceptors
in retina, breakdown of rhodopsin, signals
bipolar cells.
§ Axons pass though the optic nerves to the optic
chiasm, where some cross. Axons from the nasal
retina cross, and those from the temporal retina
do not.
§ Optic tracts from the chiasm lead to the
thalamus.
§ Optic radiations extend from the thalamus to
the visual cortex in the occipital lobe.
Optic nerve – leaves the eye and exits the orbit
Optic chiams – where two optic nerves connect
Optic tracts – the route of the ganglionic axons
Optic radiations – formed by neurons from the
thalamus
Visual cortex – where vision is perceived
Visual field – image seen by each eye
HEARING&BALANC
E
Anatomy and Function of the Ear
1. External Ear – outer part we see
a. Auricle – fleshy part; collects sound
waves & directs them toward the EAC
b. External auditory canal – passageway
that leads to the eardrum
c. Ceruminous glands – lines the auditory
canal
• Cerumen/earwax – modified
sebum; protects the lining of the
canal
d. Tympanic membrane/Eardrum – thin
membrane that separates the external
from the middle ear; sound waves
causes it to vibrate
2. Middle Ear – air filled chamber
a. Oval and Round window – connects
the middle to the inner
b. Auditory Ossicles – amplify vibrations
i. Malleus (hammer) – medial surface
of the tympanic m.
ii. Incus (anvil) – connects malleus to
stapes
iii. Stapes – its base is seated in the oval
window
c. Auditory/Eustachian tube – enables
pressure to be equalized
3. Inner Ear – fluid filled chamber; for sound
waves, balance, equilibrium
a. Bony labyrinth – interconnecting
tunnels and chambers
i. Cochlea – hearing
ii. Vestibule – balance
iii. Semicircular canal – balance
b. Membranous labyrinth – smaller set of
membranous tunnels and chambers
• Endolymph – clear fluid
c. Perilymph – fluid bet. membranous and
bony labyrinths
Cochlea
§ Contains receptors for hearing
§ Snail shell shape
Spiral lamina – threads of the screw (base)
Scala vestibuli – extends from the oval window to
the
apex of the cochlea
Scala tympani – extends in parallel with the scala v.
from the apex
Vestibular membrane – wall of the ML that lines
the
scala vestibuli
Basilar membrane – wall of the ML that lines the
scala
tympani
Cochlear duct – space bet. the VM and the BM;
filled
with endolymph
Spiral organ/Organ of Corti – specialized structure;
contains hair cells
Hair cells – specialized sensory cells; contain
microvilli
Tectorial membrane – acellular gelatinous shelf
Cochlear/Spiral ganglion – contains cell bodies of
hair
cells
Cochlear nerve – formed by axons of sensory
neurons
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN 8) – formed by
cochlear
nerve + vestibular nerve
Glutamate – neurotransmitter for hearing
Hearing
Higher pitches – causes max. distortion of the BM
Sound volume – function of sound wave amplitude
Conduction deafness – results from mechanical
deficiencies
Sensorineural hearing loss – caused by deficiencies
in
the spiral organ/nerves
Neuronal Pathways for Hearing
§ Soundwaves enter external auditory meatus,
causing the tympanic membrane to vibrate.
§ Malleus, incus, stapes amplify the vibrations,
causing the oval window to vibrate.
§ Vibrations are conducted through perilymph,
and transmitted to the endolymph, causing the
basilar membrane to vibrate.
§ Hair cells in the organ of Corti are stimulated.
§ From the vestibulocochlear nerve, action
potentials travel to the cochlear nucleus and on
the cerebral cortex.
Cochlear nucleus – where the cochlear nerve sends
axons
Inferior colliculus – where neurons in the cochlear
nucleus project to the other areas of the brainstem
Balance
Static equilibrium – vestibule; evaluating the
position of
head relative to gravity
Dynamic equilibrium – semi-circular canals;
evaluating
changes in the direction and rate of head movements
Vestibule
v Utricle
v Saccule
Maculae – specialized patches of epithelium
Otolithic membrane – gelatinous mass
Otoliths – gravity detectors composed of protein and
calcium carbonate
Semicircular canals – involved in dynamic
equilibrium;
enables a person to detect movements in any
direction
v Ampulla – expanded base of each SC
v Crista ampullaris – specialized epithelium
formed within each ampulla
v Cupula – curved, gelatinous mass contained in
each crista
Motion sickness – caused by continuous stimulation
of
the SC; characterized by nausea & weakness
Neuronal Pathways for Balance
§ Axons in the vestibular portion of the
vestibulocochlear nerve project to the
vestibular nucleus and on to the cerebral
cortex.
Vestibulocochlear nerve (8) – project to the
vestibular
nucleus in the brainstem
Balance – a complex sensation involving sensory
input
Effects of Aging on the Senses
Presbyopia – lenses’ ability to change shape initially
declines and is eventually lost
Presbyacusis – age-related sensorineural hearing loss