ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GMC
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
CHAPTER 10
Three Types of Muscle
1. Skeletal - attached to bone
2. Cardiac - found in the heart
3. Smooth - lines hollow organs
Skeletal Muscle functions:
- produce skeletal movement
- maintain posture and body positions
- support soft tissues
- guard entrances and exits
- maintain body temperature
Anatomy of the Skeletal Muscle
Organization of Connective Tissues
Epimysium - surrounds muscle
Perimysium - sheathes bundles of muscle
fibers
Epimysium and perimysium contain blood
vessels and nerves.
Endomysium covers individual muscle fibers.
Tendons (aponeuroses) attach muscle to bone
or muscle.
Skeletal Muscle Fibers
Sarcolemma (cell membrane)
Sarcoplasm (muscle cell cytoplasm)
Sarcoplasmic reticulum (modified ER)
T-tubules (T means 'transverse') and myofibrils
aid in contraction
Sarcomeres - regular arrangement of
myofibrils; smallest unit of muscle contraction
Myosin - thick filament
Actin - thin filament
The Structure of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber
Sarcomere Structure
A band - dark band that contains thick
filaments with an overlap of thin filament
I band - 'light band' contains only thin filaments
Z line - mark the boundary between adjacent
sarcomere
M line - center of sarcomere; connects the
thick filaments to each other
H zone - contains only thick filaments
Zone of overlap - thick and thin filaments
overlap each other
Thin Filaments
- F-actin
-Nebulin
-Tropomyosin - covers active sites on G-actin
-Troponin -binds to G-actin and holds
tropomyosin in place
Thick filaments
- bundles of myosin fibers around titan core
- myosin molecules have elongate tail, globular
head
- heads from cross-bridges during contraction
-interactions between G-actin and myosin
prevented by tropomyosin during rest
The Contraction of Skeletal Muscle
Tension
- created when muscles contract
- series of steps that begin with excitation at
the neuromuscular junction
- calcium release
- thick/thin filament interaction
- muscle fiber contraction
- tension
Neuromuscular Junction
- synapse
- synaptic terminal
- synaptic cleft
- Acetylcholine (neurotransmitter/chemical
messenger) ACh
- Depolarization - Na rushing into the cell
Control of skeletal muscle activity occurs at the
neuromuscular junction
- Action potential arrives at the synaptic
terminal
- ACh released into synaptic cleft
- ACh binds to receptor (causes depolarization)
on post-synaptic neuron
- Action potential in sarcolemma
Excitation/contraction coupling
- Action potential along T-tubule causes
release of calcium from cisternae of SR
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GMC
- Initiates contraction cycle: attachment, pivot,
detachment, return
Sliding filament Theory
- explains the relationship between thick and
thin filaments as contraction proceeds
- cyclic process beginning with calcium release
from SR
- Calcium (released form SR) binds to Troponin
- Troponin moves, moving tropomyosin and
exposing actin active site
- myosin head forms cross bridge and bends
toward H zone
- ATP allows release of cross bridge
Actin - pearl-like structures that contain
Tropomyosin (rope-like) and Troponin (bead-
like)
Myosin – contains myosin head
Relaxation
- acetylcholinesterase (enzyme) breaks down
ACh
- limits the duration of contraction
Tension Production by muscle fibers
- all or none principle
- amount of tension depends on number of
cross bridges formed
- skeletal muscle contracts most forcefully over
a narrow ranges of resting lengths
- motor unit - all muscle fiber innervated by one
neuron; precise control of movement
determined by number and size of motor unit
- muscle tone - stabilize bones and joints
2 Types of Contraction
1. Isometric - tension rises, length of muscle
remains constant
2. Isotonic - tension rises, length of muscle
changes
- resistance and speed of contraction inversely
related
- return to resting lengths due to elastic
components, contraction of opposing muscle
groups, gravity
Muscle Contraction requires large amounts of
energy
- creatine phosphate releases stored energy to
convert ADP to ATP
- Aerobic metabolism provides most ATP
needed for contraction
- at pea activity, anaerobic glycolysis needed to
generate ATP; build-up of Lactic Acid
Energy use and level of muscular activity
- energy production and use patterns mirror
muscle activity
- fatigued muscle no longer contracts (build-up
of lactic acid; exhaustion of energy resources)
Recovery period
- begins immediately after activity ends
- oxygen debt (excess post-exercise oxygen
consumption)
- amount of oxygen required during resting
period to restore muscle to normal conditions
Three types of skeletal muscle fibers
- fast fibers - larger diameter, contract quickly;
contain lots of glycogen (energy reserve); very
few mitochondria; fatigue rapidly (white
muscle); produce rapid, powerful contractions
for short duration
- slow fibers - smaller diameter, darker color
due to myoglobin, fatigue resistant, contract for
extended periods of time; have lots of
mitochondria and are called red muscle, can
contract for long periods of time
- intermediate fibers - pale and resemble fast
fibers
-hypertrophy - enlargement of stimulated
muscle
Physical Conditioning
- anaerobic endurance
- aerobic endurance
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GMC
- pterygoid

2. Appendicular muscles

MUSCULAR SYSTEM Aging and the muscular system (with aging)

CHAPTER 11 - power and size of muscle tissue decrease
- skeletal muscles undergo fibrolysis
Muscle Organization and Function - tolerance for exercise decreases
Muscular System -repair of injuries slows
- includes all skeletal muscle tissue that can be
controlled voluntarily

Organization of Skeletal Muscle Fibers

- parallel muscle (ex. biceps brachii)
- convergent muscle (ex. pectoralis)
- pennate muscle (unipennate ex.extensor
digitorum, bipennate ex.rectus femoris,
multipennate ex. deltoid)
- circular muscle (sphincter) ex. orbicularis oris

Muscle Terminology
Origins and Insertions
Origin- stationary end
Insertion- movable end
Action - agonist (prime mover), antagonist,
synergist, fixator

Names of Skeletal Muscle

- location (superior, inferior)
- fascicle organization (parallel, circular,
pennate)
- relative position (same as location)
- structure
- size
- shape
- origin and insertion
- action

Axial and Appendicular Muscles

1. Axial muscles - head and neck, vertebral
column, oblique and rectus muscles, pelvic
floor\

Muscles of the head and neck

- facial expression muscles; orbicularis oris,
buccinator, occipitofrontalis muscles, platysma

Muscles of Mastication
- masseter
- temporalis
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GMC
Receptors - detect changes or respond to
stimuli; neurons and specialized cells
Effectors - respond to efferent signals; cells
and organs
NERVOUS SYSTEM
CHAPTER 12 2. Efferent Division - carries motor commands
from CNS to PNS muscles and organs
Neural Tissue - Somatic Nervous System - controls skeletal
2 kinds muscle contractions; voluntary and involuntary
1. Neurons - cells that send and receive - Autonomic nervous system - controls
signals subconscious actions (sympathetic division -
2. Neuroglia/ glial cells - cells that support and has a stimulating effect, parasympathetic
protect neurons division - has a relaxing effect)

Neuron (parts) Neurons - basic functional unit of the nervous

- soma/cell body system
- nucleus
- dendrite Structure of Neurons
- axon 1. Multipolar neuron - common in CNS; parts -
- myelin sheath soma, short branched dendrites, long single
axon
Organs of the Nervous System
- brain and spinal cord Major Organelles of the Cell Body
- sensory receptors - large nucleus and nucleolus
- nerves - perikaryon (cytoplasm)
- mitochondria
Division of the Nervous System - RER and ribosomes
Anatomical Division of the Nervous System - cytoskeleton
- CNS
functions - to process and coordinate; sensory Nissl bodies - dense areas of RER and
data from inside and outside of the body, motor ribosomes, make neural tissue appear gray
commands, and higher functions of the brain: (gray matter)
intelligence memory, learning, emotion Dendrites - highly branched; many fine
processes; 80-90% neuron surface area
- PNS Axon - long; carries electrical signal (action
functions - deliver sensory information to the potential) to target cell
CNS, carry motor commands to peripheral
tissues and systems Structure of the Axon
- Axoplasm (cytoplasm)
nerves/ peripheral nerves - bundles of axons; - Axolemma (cell membrane)
carry sensory information and motor - Axon hillock - thick section of cell body
commands in PNS - Initail segment - attaches to axon hillock
2 types: cranial nerves - connect to brain, - collaterals - branches of a single axon
spinal nerves - attach to spinal cord - telodendria
- synaptic terminals - tips of telodendria
Functional Divisions of the PNS - synapse - area where a neuron
1. Afferent Division - carries sensory communicates with another cell (presynaptic
information from PNS sensory receptors to cell - neuron that sends message,
CNS postsynaptic cell - cell that receives message,
synaptic cleft - small gap that separates the
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GMC
presynaptic membrane and the postsynaptic
membrane)
Neurotransmitters - chemical messengers,
released at presynaptic membrane, affect
receptors of postsynaptic membrane, broken
down by enzymes, reassembled at synaptic
knob
Neuroglia (CNS)
Ependymal cells - highly branched processes;
contact neuroglia directly; line central canal of
spinal cord and ventricles of the brain; secrete
cerebrospinal fluid; have cilia or microvilli that
circulate CSF
Astrocytes - large cell bodies with many
processes; maintain blood-brain barrier
(isolates CNS); repair damaged neural tissue
Oligodendrocytes - smaller cell bodies with
fewer processes; wrap around axons to form
myelin sheaths
Microglia - smallest and least numerous
neuroglia with many fine-branched processes
Neuroglia (PNS)
Satellite cells - surround ganglia
Schwann cells - insulate neurons, myelin
sheath (neurilemma) around peripheral axons;
internodes and nodes of Ranvier
Myelination - increases speed of action
potentials and insulates the axon; makes
nerves appear white
White matter - regions of CNS with many
myelinated nerves
Gray matter - unmyelinated areas of CNS
Ganglia - masses of neuron cell bodies;
surrounded by neuroglia, found in PNS
Five Main Membrane Processes in the Neural
Activities
1. Resting Potential - transmembrane potential
of resting cell; -70 millivolts
2. Graded potential - temporary, localized
change in resting potential; caused by stimulus
3. Action potential - an electrical impulse
produced by the graded potential
4. Synaptic activity - releases neurotransmitter
at presynaptic membrane; produces graded
potentials in postsynaptic membrane
5. Information processing - response
integration of (stimuli) of post synaptic cell
Three Requirements for Transmembrane
Potential
- Concentration gradient of ions (NA, K)
- selectively permeable through channels
- maintains charge difference across
membrane (resting potential = -70 mV)
Active Forces Across the Membrane
- Sodium-potassium ATPase
- powered by ATP
- 3 NA out and 2 K in
- maintains resting potential
Transmembrane potential exists across plasma
membrane because cytosol and extracellular
fluid have different ionic balance
- plasma membrane is selectively permeable
Graded Potentials
- opening s sodium channels produces graded
potentials; enter the cell = depolarization -
when we take the membrane potential from
negative towards more positive, towards 0 or
beyond 0
repolarization - when stimulus is removed;
transmembrane potential returns to normal
hyperpolarization - increasing the negativity of
the resting potential; result of opening a
potassium channel
Four Steps in the Generation of Action
Potential
Step 1: Depolarization to threshold
Step 2: Activation of Na channels
Step 3: Inactivation of Na channels, activation
of K channels
Step 4: Return to normal permeability
Refractory Period - membrane will not respond
normally to additional stimuli; returning to
resting state
Propagation of Action potentials
Propagation - moves action potentials
generated in axon hillock; a series of repeated
actions
2 methods of propagating action potentials
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GMC
- continuous propagation: unmyelinated axons,
affects one segment of axon at a time
- saltatory propagation: myelinated axons;
faster and uses less energy than continuous
propagation
NERVOUS SYSTEM
CHAPTER 13
Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
- about 18 inches (45 cm) long
- 1/2 inch (44 mm) wide
- ends between vertebrae L1 and L2
- bilateral symmetry (grooves divide the spinal
cord into the left and right, posterior median
sulcus - indentation; and anterior median
fissure - deep groove
The Distal End
Conus medullaris - thin, conical spinal cord
below lumbar enlargement
Filum terminale - thin thread of fibrous tissue at
end of conus medullaris; attaches to coccygeal
ligament
Cauda equina - nerve roots extending below
conus medullaris
31 spinal cord segments based on vertebrae
where spinal nerves originate
Roots
2 branches of spinal nerves
1. Ventral root - contains axons of motor
neurons
2. Dorsal root - contains axons of sensory
neurons
Dorsal root ganglia - contain cell bodies of
sensory neurons
The Spinal nerve
Each side of the spine
- dorsal and ventral roots join to form spinal
nerves
Mixed nerves - carry both afferent (sensory)
and efferent (motor) fibers
The Spinal Meninges
- specialized membranes isolate spinal cord
from surroundings
functions of the spinal meninges include
- protect spinal cord
- carry blood supply
- continuous with cranial meninges
Meningitis - viral or bacterial infection of the
meninges
The Three Meningeal Layers
1. Dura Mater - outer layer of spinal cord
2. Arachnoid mater - middle meningeal layer
3. Pia mater - inner meningeal layer
The Dura Mater
- tough and fibrous
- cranially - fuses with periosteum of occipital
bone; is continuous with cranial dura mater
- caudally - tapers to dense cord of collagen
fibers; joins filum terminale in coccygeal
ligament
- the epidural space - between spinal dura
mater and the walls of vertebral canal; contains
loose connective and adipose tissue;
anesthetic injection site
The Arachnoid Mater
- middle meningeal layer
- arachnoid membrane - simple squamous
epithelia
The Interlayer Spaces of the Arachnoid Mater
- Subdural space - between arachnoid mater
and dura mater
- Subarachnoid space - between arachnoid
mater and pia mater'; contains collagen/ elastin
fiber network (arachnoid trabeculae); filled with
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Cerebrospinal fluid - carries dissolved gases,
nutrients, and wastes; spinal tap: withdraws
CSF
The Pia Mater
- is the innermost meningeal layer
- is a mesh of collagen and elastic fibers
- is bound to underlying neural tissue
Sectional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
White Matter
- is superficial
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GMC
- contains myelinated and unmyelinated axons
Gray Matter Functional Organization of Neurons
- surrounds central canal of spinal cord Sensory neurons
- contains neuron cell bodies, neuroglia, - about 10 million
unmyelinated axons - deliver information to CNS
- has projections (gray horns) Motor neurons
- about 1/2 million
Control and Location - deliver commands to peripheral effectors
- sensory or motor nucleus location within the Interneurons
gray matter determines which body part it - about 20 billion
controls - interpret, plan, and coordinate signals in and
out
Organization of White Matter
Tracts or fasciculi
- in white columns
- bundles of axons
- relay same information in same direction
- ascending tracts - carry information to brain
- descending tracts - carry commands to spinal
cord

Spinal Cord Summary

- spinal cord has a narrow central canal
- surrounded by gray matter
- contain sensory and motor nuclei (sensory
nuclei are dorsal, motor nuclei are ventral

Gray matter
- covered by a thick layer of white matter
White Matter
- consists of ascending and descending axons
- organized in columns
- contain axon bundles with specific functions
Spinal cord is so highly organized
- it is possible to predict results of injuries to
specific areas

Spinal Nerves and Plexuses

Anatomy of Spinal nerves
- every spinal cord segment is connected to a
pair of spinal nerves
- every spinal nerve is surrounded by three
connective tissue layers that support structures
and contain blood vessels
Dermatomes - bilateral region of the skin;
monitored by specific pair of spinal nerves

Peripheral Neuropathy
- regional loss of sensory or motor function due
to trauma or compression
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GMC
NERVOUS SYSTEM
CHAPTER 14
An Introduction to the Brain and Cranial Nerves
The Adult Human Brain
- contains almost 97% of the body's neural
tissue
- average weight is about 1.4 kg (3 lbs)
The Brain
Six Regions of the Brain
Cerebrum
- largest part of the brain
- controls higher metal functions
- divided into left and right cerebral
hemispheres
- surface layer of gray matter (neural cortex)
- Cerebrum - neural cortex - also called
cerebral cortex; folded surface increases
surface area; elevated ridges (gyri); shallow
depressions (sulci); deep grooves (fissures)
Cerebellum
- second largest part of the brain
- coordinates repetitive body movements
- two hemispheres
- covered with cerebellar cortex
Diencephalon
- located under cerebrum and cerebellum
- links cerebrum with brain stem
- three divisions - left hypothalamus, right
hypothalamus, and hypothalamus
- thalamus - relays and processes sensory
information
- hypothalamus - hormone production,
emotion, autonomic function
- pituitary gland - major endocrine gland
The Brain Stem
- processes information between the spinal
cord and cerebrum or cerebellum
Mesencephalon
- also called midbrain
- processes sight, sound, and associated
reflexes
- maintains consciousness
Pons
- connects cerebellum to brain stem
- is involved in somatic and visceral motor
control
Medulla oblongata
- connects the brain to the spinal cord
- relay information
- regulate autonomic functions: heart rate,
blood pressure, and digestion
The Brain
- The brain is a large, delicate mass of neural
tissue containing internal passageways and
chambers filled with CSF.
- Each of the six major brain regions has
specific functions.
- Ascending from the medulla oblongata to the
cerebrum, brain functions become more
complex and variable.
- conscious thought and intelligence are
produced in the neural cortex of the cerebral
hemispheres
Brain Protection and Support
Physical protection
- bones and cranium
- cranial meninges
- CSF (cerebrospinal fluid)
Biochemical isolation
- BBB (blood-brain barrier)
The Cranial Meninges - protect the brain from
cranial trauma
3 layers
1. Dura mater
2. Arachnoid mater
3. Pia mater
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
- surrounds all exposed surfaces of CNS
- interchanges with interstitial fluid of brain
functions:
- cushions delicate neural structures
- supports brain
- transports nutrients, chemical messengers,
and waste products
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GMC
Blood Supply to the Brain
- supplies nutrients and oxygen to brain
- delivered by internal carotid arteries and
vertebral arteries
- removed from dural sinuses by internal
jugular veins
Carotid Artery
Jugular Vein
Cerebrovascular Disease
- disorders interfere with blood circulation to
brain
- stroke or cerebrovascular accident (CVA)
(shuts off blood to portion of brain; neurons die
Blood- Brain Barrier
- isolates CNS neural tissue from general
circulation
- formed by network of tight junctions
- lipid-soluble compounds (O2, and CO2), and
steroids
- astrocytes control blood-brain barrier by
releasing chemicals that control permeability of
endothelium
The Medulla Oblongata
- allows brain and spinal cord to communicate
- coordinates complex autonomic reflexes
- controls visceral functions
The Pons
- modify respiratory rhythmicity center activity
- process and relay information to and from
cerebellum
- secretes hormone melatonin
Eight Functions of the Hypothalamus
- provides subconscious control of skeletal
muscle
- controls autonomic functions
- coordinates activities or nervous and
endocrine systems
- secretes hormones - antidiuretic hormones;
oxytocin
- produces emotions and behavioral drives (the
feeding center, hunger), (the thirst center
(thirst)
- coordinates voluntary and autonomic
functions
- regulates body temperature
- controls circadian rhythms (day and night
cycle)
The Limbic System - a functional grouping that
- establishes emotional states
- links conscious functions of cerebral cortex
with autonomic functions of brain stem
- facilitates memory storage and retrieval
The Cerebrum
Three Functional Principles of the Cerebrum
- each cerebral hemispheres receives sensory
information from, and sends motor commands
to, the opposite side of the body
- the two hemispheres have different functions,
although their structures are alike
- the subconscious control of skeletal muscle
tone
- the coordination of learned movement
patterns (walking, lifting)

The Cerebellum White Matter of the Cerebrum

functions: Commissural fibers - bands of fibers
- adjusts postural muscles connecting two hemispheres: corpus callosum,
- fine-tunes conscious and subconscious anterior commissure
movements
The Cerebrum
Special Sensory Cortexes
The Diencephalon Visual Cortex - information from sight receptors
- integrates sensory information and motor Auditory cortex - information from sound
commands receptors
- thalamus, epithalamus, and hypothalamus Olfactory cortex - information from odor
- the pineal gland - found in posterior receptors
epithalamus
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GMC
Gustatory cortex - information from taste
receptors

Other Integrative Areas

Speech center
- is associated with general interpretive area
- coordinates all vocalization functions
Prefrontal cortex of frontal lobe
- integrates information from sensory
association areas
- performs abstract intellectual activities (e.g.
predicting consequences of actions)

The Cerebrum
The Cerebral Cortex
Frontal lobe - primary motor cortex; voluntary
control of skeletal muscles
Parietal lobe - primary sensory cortex;
conscious perception of touch, pressure, pain,
vibration, taste, and temperature
Occipital lobe - visual cortex; conscious
perception of visual stimuli
Temporal lobe - auditory cortex and olfactory
cortex; conscious perception of auditory and
olfactory stimuli
all lobes - association areas; integration and
processing of sensory data; processing and
initiation of motor activities

The Left Hemisphere

In most people, left brain (dominant
hemisphere) controls
- reading, writing, math, decision making,
speech and language
The Right Hemisphere
Right cerebral hemisphere relates to
- senses (touch, smell, sight, taste, feel),
recognition (faces, voice inflections)

Monitoring Brain Activity

Brain activity is assessed by an
electroencephalogram (EEG)
- electrodes are placed on the skull
- patterns of electrical activity (brain waves) are
printed out
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GMC
NERVOUS SYSTEM
CHAPTER 16
An Introduction to the ANS
Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
- operates under conscious control
- seldom affects long-term survival
- SNS controls skeletal muscles
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
- operates without conscious instruction
- coordinates system functions: cardiovascular,
respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive
Divisions of the ANS
The autonomic nervous system
- operates largely outside our awareness
- has two divisions: sympathetic division -
increases alertness, metabolic rate, and
muscular abilities; parasympathetic division -
reduces metabolic rate and promotes digestion
Sympathetic Division
- kicks in only during exertion, stress, or
emergency
- fight or flight
Parasympathetic Division
- controls during resting conditions
- rest and digest
Seven Responses to increased sympathetic
activity
- heightened mental alertness
- increased metabolic rate
- reduced digestive and urinary functions
- energy reserves activated
- increased respiratory rate and respiratory
passageways dilate
- increased heart rate and blood pressure
- sweat glands activated
Parasympathetic Division
- rest and repose
- conserves energy and promotes sedentary
activities
- decreased metabolic rate, heart rate, and
blood pressure
- increased salivary and digestive glands
secretion
- increased motility and blood flow in digestive
tract
- urination and defecation stimulation
The Sympathetic Division
Sympathetic Activation
- change activities of tissues and organs by
- distribution E and ME throughout the body in
bloodstream
- entire division responds (sympathetic
activation_
- are controlled by sympathetic centers in
hypothalamus
- alters CNS activity
- increased alertness
- feelings of energy and euphoria
- change in breathing
- elevation in muscle tone
- mobilization of energy reserves
Various Sympathetic Neurotransmitters
Sympathetic Stimulation and Release of ACh
and NO
(ACh) sympathetic terminals
- innervate sweat glands of skin and blood
vessels of skeletal muscles and brain
- stimulate sweat gland secretion and dilate
blood vessels
Nitroxidergic synapses
- release nitric oxide as neurotransmitter
- neurons innervate smooth muscles in walls of
blood vessels in skeletal muscles and the brain
- produce vasodilation and increased blood
flow
Parasympathetic Activation
- centers on relaxation, food processing, and
energy absorption
- localized effects, lasts a few seconds at most
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GMC
Major effects of parasympathetic division - conscious motor and sensory memories
include: referred to association
- constriction of pupils (restricts light entering - occipital and temporal lobes - special portions
eyes) crucial to memories of faces, voices, and
- secretion by digestive glands (exocrine and words
endocrine)
- secretion of hormones (nutrient absorption State of Consciousness
and utilization) - many gradations of states
- changes in blood flow and glandular activity - degree of wakefulness indicates level of
(associated with sexual arousal) ongoing CNS activity
- increase in smooth muscle activity along - when abnormal or depresses, state of
digestive tract wakefulness is affected
- defecation: stimulation and coordination
- contraction of urinary bladder during urination States of Consciousness
- constriction of respiratory passageways Deep sleep
- reduction in heart rate and force of - also called slow-wave sleep
contraction - entire body relaxes
- cerebral cortex activity minimal
Anabolic System - heart rate, blood pressure respiratory rate,
- stimulation increases nutrient content of blood and energy utilization decline up to 30%
- cells absorb nutrients Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
- active dreaming occurs
Dual Innervation - changes in blood pressure and respiratory
Sympathetic rate
- widespread impact - less receptive to outside stimuli than in deep
- reaches organs and tissues throughout the sleep
body - muscle tone decreases markedly
Parasympathetic - eyes move rapidly as dreams events unfold
- innervates only specific visceral structures Nighttime sleep pattern
- most vital organs receive instructions from - alternates between levels
both sympathetic and parasympathetic - begins in deep sleep
divisions - REM periods average 5 minutes in length;
- two divisions commonly have opposing increases to 20 minutes over 8 hours
effects Sleep
- has important impact on CNS
Higher-order Functions - produces only minor changes in physiological
activities of organs and systems
Memory - protein synthesis in neurons increases during
Short-term memories sleep
- information that can be recalled immediately - extended periods without sleep lead to
- contains small bits of information disturbances in metal function
- primary memories
Long-Term Memories Brain Chemistry
- memory consolidation: conversion from short- Serotonin (neurotransmitter)
term to long-term memory: secondary - fluoxetine (Prozac)
memories fade and requires effort to recall; - slows removal of serotonin at synapses
tertiary memories are with you for life. - increases serotonin concentrations at
postsynaptic membrane
Cerebral cortex - classified as selective serotonin reuptake
- stores long-term memories inhibitors (SSRIs)
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY GMC
- other SSRIs: Celexa, Luvox, Paxil, and Zoloft
Aging and the Nervous System
- Anatomical and physiological changes begin
after maturity (age 30)
- Accumulate over time
- 85% of people over age 65 have changes in
mental performance and CNS function
Senility
- also called senile dementia
- degenerative changes: memory loss,
anterograde amnesia (lose ability to store new
memories), emotional disturbances
- Alzheimer's disease is most common
NERVOUS SYSTEM
CHAPTER 17
An Introduction to Special Senses
Gustation - provides information about the
foods and liquids consumed
Taste receptors (or gustatory receptors) are
distributed on tongue and portions of the
pharynx and larynx; cluster into taste buds
Taste buds - associated with epithelial
projections (lingual papillae) on superior
surface of the tongue
contain: basal (stem) cells, gustatory cells -
extend taste hairs through taste pore; survive
only 10 days before replacement
Gustatory Discrimination - primary taste
sensations: sweet, salty, sour, bitter
additional human taste sensations: umami -
characteristic pf beef/chicken broth and
parmesan cheese
- receptors sensitive to amino acids, small
peptides, and nucleotides; water - detected by
water receptors in the pharynx

Five Special Senses The Eye

- Olfaction Accessory Structures of the Eye
- Gustation
- Vision - provide protection, lubrication, and support
- Equilibrium includes: palpebrae (eyelids), superficial
- Hearing epithelium of eye, lacrimal apparatus

Smell (Olfaction) Eyelids (Palpebrae)

Olfactory Organs
- provide sense of smell
- located in nasal cavity on either side of nasal
septum
2 layers: olfactory epithelium, lamina propria
Olfactory glands
- secretions coat surfaces of olfactory organs
Olfactory receptors
- highly modified neurons
- olfactory reception (involves detecting
dissolved chemicals as they interact with
odorant-binding proteins)
Olfactory Discrimination
- can distinguish thousands of chemical stimuli
- CNS interprets smells by the pattern of
receptor activity
Olfactory receptor population
- considerable turnover number of olfactory
receptors declines with age
Taste (Gustation)
- continuation of skin
- blinking keeps surface of eye lubricated, free
of dust and debris
- palpebral fissure - gap that separates free
margins of upper and lower eyelids
- medial canthus and lateral canthus - where
two eyelids are connected
- eyelashes - robust hairs that prevent foreign
matter from reaching surface of eye
- tarsal glands - secrete lipid-rich product that
helps keep eyelids from sticking together
Superficial Epithelium of Eye
Lacrimal caruncle
- mass of soft tissue
- contains glands producing thick secretions
- contributes to gritty deposits that appear after
good night's sleep
Conjunctiva
- epithelium covering inner surfaces of eyelids
Lacrimal Apparatus
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- produces, distributes, and removes tears Astigmatism
- lacrimal gland (tear gland)- secretions contain - condition where light passing through cornea
lysozyme, an antibacterial enzyme and lens is not refracted properly
- visual image is distorted
Eyeball Visual acuity
- hollow; divided into two cavities: large - clarity of vision
posterior cavity, smaller anterior cavity - normal rating is 20/20

Sclera (white of the eye) Color vision

Cornea - integration of information from red, green, and
Limbus - border between cornea and sclera blue cones
contains papillary constrictor muscles: changes - color blindness (inability to detect certain
diameter of pupil colors)

The Neural Tunic (Retina) Visual data

- outer layer called pigmented part - from combined field of vision arrive at visual
- inner neural part cortex of opposite occipital lobe
- contains visual receptors and associated - left half arrive at right occipital lobe
neurons - right half arrive at left occipital lobe
- rods and cones are types of photoreceptors
rods: do not discriminate light colors, highly The External Ear
sensitive to light Auricle
cones: provide color vision, densely clustered - surrounds entrance to external acoustic
in fovea meatus
- protects opening of canal
Aqueous humor - provides directional sensitivity
- smaller anterior cavity; fluid that circulates External acoustic meatus
within the eye - ends at tympanic membrane (eardrum)
large posterior cavity (vitreous chamber) Tympanic membrane
- vitreous body - is a thin, semitransparent sheet
- gelatinous mass - separates external ear from middle ear
- helps stabilize eye shape and supports retina
The External Ear
The Lens Ceruminous glands
lens fibers - integumentary glands along external acoustic
- filled with crystallins, which provide clarity and meatus
focusing power to lens - secretes waxy material (cerumen): keeps
cataract - condition in which lens has lost its foreign objects out of tympanic membrane
transparency - slows growth of microorganisms in external
light refraction acoustic meatus
- bending of light by cornea and lens
- focal point - specific point of intersection on The Middle Ear
retina - also called tympanic cavity
- focal distance - distance between center of - communicates with nasopharynx via auditory
lens and focal point tube
- permits equalization of pressures on either
Light refraction of lens side of tympanic
Accommodation membrane
- shape of lens changes to focus image on - encloses and protects three auditory ossicles
retina - malleus (hammer)
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- incus (anvil)
- stapes (stirrup)

Vibration of Tympanic Membrane

- converts arriving sound waves into
mechanical movements
- auditory ossicles conduct vibrations to inner
ear

The Inner Ear

- contains fluid called endolymph
- bony labyrinth surrounds and protects
membranous labyrinth
subdivided to: vestibule, semicircular canals,
cochlea

Hearing
- cochlear ducts receptors - provide sense of
hearing

with age, damage accumulates

- tympanic membrane gets less flexible
- articulations between ossicles stiffen