ANAPHYSIO LECTURE
MIDTERMS
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Histology and Physiology
Functions of the Muscular System
 Types of Muscle Tissue
o Skeletal Muscle- Most abundant and
most studied type
o Smooth Muscle- most widely
distributed type of muscle in the body.
o Cardiac Muscle- found only in the
heart, and its contractions provide the
major force for moving blood through
the circulatory system.
 Major Functions
o Movement of the body
o Maintenance of posture
o Respiration
o Production of Body Heat
o Communication
o Constriction of organs and vessels
o Contraction of the heart
 4 Major functional properties
o Contractility- the ability of muscle to
shorten forcefully, or contract
o Excitability- the capacity of muscle to
respond to an electrical stimulus.
o Extensibility- means a muscle can be
stretched beyond its normal resting
length and still be able to contracts.
o Elasticity- the ability of muscle to spring
back to its original resting length after it
has been stretched.
Whole Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
 Connective Tissue Coverings
o Fascicles- a muscle is composed of
numerous visible bundles.
o Perimysium- Connective tissue layer
that surrounds each fasciculus.
o Epimysium- The entire muscle is
surrounded by a layer of dense irregular
collagenous connective tissue (DICCT)
o Fascia- is a general term for sheets of
DICCT within the body.
o Muscular fascia- located superficial to
the epimysium and separates individual
muscles or groups of muscles.
 Nerves and Blood Vessels
o Motor neurons- specialized nerve cells
responsible for stimulating skeletal
muscle contraction.
 Skeletal Muscle Fiber Anatomy
o Long, cylindrical cells, each with several
nuclei located near the plasma
membrane.
o Length: 1mm to 4 cm from 10
micrometers to 100 in diameter
 Muscle Fiber Development
o Myoblasts- muscle fibers develop from
less mature, multinucleated cells
o Hypertrophy- enlargement of muscles
in children and adults results from an
increase in the size of each muscle fiber,
not from a substantial increase in the
number of muscle fibers. Similarly,
hypertrophy
 Sarcolemma- plasma membrane of a muscle
fiber
 External lamina- deeper & thinner; delicate CT
layers located outside sarcolemma.
 Endomysium-second layer also consists mostly
of reticular fibers, but it is a much thicker layer.
 T tubules/transverse tubules- many tubelike
invaginations of the sarcolemma.
 sarcoplasmic reticulum- highly organized
smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
 sarcoplasm- the cytoplasm of a muscle fiber
 myofibrils- The sarcoplasm also contains
numerous bundles A myofibril contains two
kinds of long, thin protein filaments of protein
filaments
o myofilaments- A myofibril contains two
kinds of long, thin protein filaments
 Actin myofilaments(thin)- are
linear polymers of globular
actin (G-actin) subunits and
occur as microfilaments in the
cytoskeleton and as thin
filaments, which are part of the
contractile apparatus, in muscle
and non-muscle cells
 Myosin myofilaments(thick)-
filament composed of either
multiple myosin or actin
proteins that slide over each
other to generate tension.
 Actin and Myosin Myofilament
  Synapse – cell-to-cell junction bet. a nerve cell and
 Sarcomeres- The actin and myosin
myofilaments are arranged into highly ordered
units
- the basic structural and functional unit of
skeletal; the smallest portion that is capable
of contracting.
- Z disks- separate one sarcomere from the
next; a filamentous network of proteins;
forms the attachment of actin
myofilaments.
- I band/isotropic bands- light staining
bands; extends to the ends of the myosin
filaments; consists only of action
myofilaments
- A band- dark staining in the center of each
sarcomere; extends the length of the
myosin myofilaments within a sarcomere.
- H zone – actin and myosin filaments do not
overlap and only myosin myofilaments are
present
- M line – in the middle of H zone; consists of
filaments that attach to the center of the
myosin myofilaments: holds it in place.
- Titin- one of the largest proteins, consisting
of a single chain of amino acids- it attaches
to Z disks and extends along myosin
myofilaments to the M line
Excitability of Muscle Fibers
Resting membrane potential – cell membranes have a
negative charge on the inside relative to a positive
charge outside; occurs bcos there is an uneven
distribution of ions
1. Concentration of K+ inside the cell CM >
outside the CM
2. Concentration of Na+ outside the CM > inside
the CM
Different types of Ion Channels
O Nongated/Leak channels – always open
O Chemically gated channels – closed until a
chemical binds them and stimulates them to
open
Depolarization – the inside of the CM membrane comes
more positive than the outside of the cell; Na+ ions
move into cells
Repolarization – the change back to the resting
membrane potential; K+ ions moves out of cells
Action Potentials – the rapid depolarization and
 repolarization of the CM; results in muscle
contraction
Motor neurons – specialized nerve cells that stimulate
muscles to contract
Neuromuscular junction – a branch that forms a
junction with a muscle fiber
another nerve cell/effector cell
Motor unit – a single motor neuron and all the skeletal
muscle fibers it innervates
Presynaptic terminal – enlarged axon terminal
Synaptic cleft – the space bet. the presynaptic terminal
and the muscle fiber membrane
Postsynaptic membrane – the muscle fiber membrane
Synaptic vesicles – presynaptic terminal that contains
small vesicles
Acetylcholine (ACh) – neurotransmitter contained in
the vesicles; a molecule released by a presynaptic nerve
cell that stimulates/inhibits a postsynaptic cell
Acetylcholinesterase – an enzyme that rapidly breaks
down the synaptic cleft bet. the neuron and the muscle
fiber
Muscle Contraction
Sliding filament model – sliding of actin myofilaments
past myosin myofilaments during contraction
Cross-bridges – myosin heads attach to the myosin
attachment sites on the actin myofilaments
Muscle Twitch, Summation, Tetanus, Recruitment
Muscle Twitch – contraction of a muscle fiber in
reponse to a stimulus
1. Lag/Latent Phase – time bet. the application of a
stimulus and the beginning of contraction
2. Contraction Phase – time during which the
muscle contract
3. Relaxation Phase – time during which the
muscle relaxes
Summation – the force of contraction of an individual
muscle fiber is increased by rapidly stimulating them
Tetanus – convulsive tension; a sustained contraction
that occurs when the frequency of stimulus is so rapid
that no relaxation occurs
O Caused by Ca+ build up in the myofibrils
Recruitment – the no. of muscle fibers contraction is
increased by the increasing no. of motor units stimulated
+ muscle contracts with more force
Stimulus frequency – no. of times a motor neuron is
stimulated per second
Energy Requirement for Muscle Contraction
Aerobic Respiration – requires O2; breaks down glucose
to produce ATP, CO2, H2O
Anaerobic respiration – doesn’t require O2; breaks
down glucose to yield ATP and lactic acid
Creatine phosphate – high-energy molecule that can be
stored in muscle fibers
Fatigue
§ A state of reduced work capacity
Muscular Fatigue – when muscle fibers use ATP faster
than they are produced; when the effectiveness of Ca+ to
stimulate actin + myosin is reduced
Physiological contracture – muscles may become
incapable of either contracting or relaxing
Psychological fatigue – involves the CNS; an individual
perceives that continued muscle contraction is
impossible
Type of Muscle Contractions
Isometric contractions – equal distance; length of the
muscle does not change; the amount of tension increases
during the contraction process
Isotonic contraction – equal tension; the amount of
tension produced by the muscle is constant during
contraction; length of the muscle decreases
O Cocentric contractions – isotonic; muscle
tension increases as the muscle shortens
O Eccentric contractions – isotonic; tension is
maintained in a muscle; the opposing resistance
causes the muscle to lengthen
Muscle Tone
§ Constant tension produced by body muscles
over long periods of time
§ Responsible for keeping the back and legs
straight, the head in an upright position, and the
abdomen from bulging
Slow-Twitch and Fast-Twitch Fibers
Classification of Muscle Fiber
1. Slow Twitch – contains type I myosin; contracts
slowly and resistant to fatigue respiration
2. Fast Twitch
a. Type IIa – intermediate speed; more
fatigue resistant than type IIb
b. Type IIb – contract 10x faster than type I
Myglobin – stores oxygen temporarily
Hypertrophy – enlarging of muscle fibers
Satellite cells – undifferentiated cells just below the
endomysium
Smooth and Cardiac Muscle
Autorhythmicity – resulting periodic spontaneous
contraction of smooth muscle.
Intercalated disks – specialized structures that facilitate
action potential conduction bet. cells
Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
General Principles
Tendon – muscle connected to a bone
Aponeuroses – broad, sheet like tendons
Retinaculum – a band of CT that holds down the
tendons at each wrist and ankle
Origin – head; most stationary end of the muscle
Insertion – end of the muscle attached to the bone
undergoing the greatest movement
Belly – part of the muscle bet. the origin & the insertion
Agonist – muscle that accomplishes a certain
movement
Antagonist – muscle acting in opposition to an agonist
Synergists – a group of muscles working together to
produce a movement
Prime Mover – muscle that plays the major role in
accomplishing desired movement
Fixators – muscles that hold one bone in place relative
to
the body
Nomenclature
1. Accdg. To Location – temporalis, frontalis,
pectoralis, brachialis
2. Accdg. To Origin and Insertion – sterno
(sternum), cleido (clavicle), mastoid (mastoid
process), brachio (arm), radialis (radius)
3. Accdg. To Number of Origin – biceps (2),
triceps, quadriceps
4. Accdg. To Function – flexor (flexion)
5. Accdg. To Size – maximus (largest), minimus
(smallest), vastus (large)
6. Accdg. To Shape – deltoid (triangle), orbicularis
(circular)
7. Orientation of Fasciculi – rectus (straight)
I. Muscles of the Head and Neck
Facial Expression
Occipitofrontalis – raises the eyebrows
Orbicularis oculi – encircle the eyes, tightly close the
eyelids, and causes crow’s feet wrinkles
Orbicularis oris – encircles the mouth
Buccinator – kissing muscles; pucker the mouth; flattens
the cheeks I whistling/blowing
Zygomaticus – elevate the upper lip and corner of the
mouth
Levator labile superioris – sneering; elevates one side
of
the upper lip
Depressor anguli oris – frowning & pouting; depresses
the corner of the mouth
Mastification (for chewing)
Temporalis – fan-shaped muscle
Masseter – seen & felt on the side of the head
Pterygoid (paired) – protraction, excursion, elevation of
mandible
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
Intrinsic muscles – located within the tongue and
change its shape
Extrinsic muscles – attached to and move the tongue
Hyoid muscles – hold the hyoid bone; elevate the larynx
Pharyngeal elevators – elevate the pharynx
Pharyngeal constrictors – constrict the pharynx from
superior to inferior (forcing food into the esophagus);
also open the auditory tube
Neck Muscles
Sternocleidomastoid – prime mover of the lateral
muscle group; rotates the head; flexes the neck or
extends the head; prayer muscle
Torticollis – wryneck; injury to the sternocleidomastoid
Deep neck muscles – flexes/extends head and neck
Trapezius – extends and laterally flexes neck
II. Trunk Muscles
Muscles Moving the Vertebral Column
Erector spinae – responsible for keeping the back
straight and the body erect
Deep back muscles – responsible for several
movements
of the vertebral column
External intercostal – elevate the ribs during inspiration
Internal intercostal – contract during forced expiration,
depressing the ribs
Diaphragm – major movement produced in the thorax
during quiet breathing
Scalenes – inspiration and rib elevation
Abdominal Wall Muscles
Linea alba – tendinous area of the abdominal wall that
consists of white connective tissue
Rectus abdominis – located on each side of the linea
alba
Tendinous intersections – causes the abdominal wall of
a lean, well-muscled person to appear segmented.
External/Internal abdominal oblique & Transversus
abdominis – flex and rotate the vertebral column or
compress the abdominal contents
Pelvic Floor and Perineal Muscles
Pelvic Floor – pelvic diaphragm
Levator ani – muscle that forms the pelvic floor
Perineum – associated with the male/female
reproductive structures
Perineum bulbospongiosus – constricts the urethra;
erects the penis, clitoris
Perineum ischiocavernosus – compresses the base of
penis/clitoris
Perineum external anal sphincter – keeps the orifice of
the anal canal closed
III. Upper Limb Muscles
Scapular Movements
§ Attach the scapula to the thorax and move the
scapula
§ Acts as fixators to hold the scapula firmly in
position when the muscle of the arm contract
§ Move the scapula into different positions
v Trapezius
v Levator scapulae
v Rhomboids
v Serratus anterior
v Pectoralis minor
Arm Movements
Pectoralis major – adducts the arm and flexes the
shoulder; extend the shoulder from a flexed position
Latissimus dorsi – swimmer’s muscle; medially rotates
and adducts the arm and powerfully extends the
shoulder
Rotator cuff muscles – attached the humerus to the
scapula and forms a cuff/cap over the proximal
humerus
Deltoid – attaches the humerus to the scapula and
clavicle; major abductor of the upper limb
Forearm Movements
Triceps brachii – primary extensor of the elbow
Biceps brachii & brachialis – primary flexors of the
elbow
Brachioradialis – posterior forearm muscle; helps flex
the elbow
Supination and Pronation
Supinator – supination of the forearm or turning the
flexed forearm so that the palm is up
Pronator – pronation, turning other forearm so that the
palm is down
Wrist and Finger Movements
Retinaculum – fibrous connective tissue that covers the
flexor & extensor tendons and holds them in place
around the wrist
Flexor carpi – flex the wrist
Extensor carpi – extend the wrist
Flexor digitorum – flexor of the digits/fingers
Extensor digitorum – extension of the fingers
Intrinsic hand muscles – 19 muscles located within the
hand
Interossei – responsible for abduction and adduction of
the fingers
Tennis elbow – inflammation and pain due to forceful,
repeated contraction of the wrist extensor muscles
Palmus longus – tightens palm skin
IV. Lower Limb Muscles
Thigh Movements
Iliopsoas – flexes the hip
Tensor fasciae latae – helps steady the femur on the
tibi.
when a person is standing
Gluteus maximus – extends the hip; adducts and
laterally rotates the thigh; contributes most of the mass
Gluteus medius – extends the hop when the thigh is
flexed at a 45O angle; common site for injections in the
buttocks (sciatic nerve lies deep to the g. maximus)
Leg Movements
Quadriceps femoris – primary extensors of the knee
Sartorius – tailor’s muscle; longest muscle in the body;
flexes the hip and knee; rotates the thigh laterally for
sitting cross legged
Hamstring muscles – flexing the knee
Adductor muscles – adducting the thigh
Ankle and Toe Movements
Gastrocnemius & Soleus – form the bulge of the calf
Calcaneal tendon – Achilles tendon; flexors and are
involved in plantar flexion of the foot
Fibularis muscles – primary everters of the foot; aid in
plantar flexion
Intrinsic foot muscles – flex, extend, abduct, and adduct
the toes
Extensor digitorum longus – extends 4 lateral toes,
everts foot.
Extensor halluces longus – extends great toe; inverts
foot
Tibialis anterior – inverts foot
Fibularis tertius – everts foot
Flexor digitorum longus – flexes 4 lateral toes, inverts
foot
Flexor halluces longus – flexes great toe, inverts foot
Tibialis posterior – inverts foot
Fibularis brevis – everts foot
Fibularis longus – everts foot
Effects of Aging on Skeletal Muscle
§ Decreased muscle mass
§ Slower reaction time
§ Reduced stamina
§ Increased recovery time
Types of Muscular Tissue
I. Skeletal (striated voluntary)
§ Large, long, cylindrical cells
§ Multinucleated
§ Attached to bones
§ Responsible for body movement
II. Cardiac (striated involuntary)
§ Cylindrical cells
§ Branched and connected to one another by
intercalated disks
§ Single nucleated
§ Found in the heart
§ Pumps the blood
III. Smooth (nonstriated involuntary)
§ End tapered cells
§ Single nucleated
§ Found in hollow organs: stomach, intestine;
skin, eyes
§ Regulates size of organs, forces fluid through
tubes, controls the amount of light entering the
eye, produces ‘goose bumps’
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Complete exchange of o2 and co2
1. Ventilation
2. External respiration
3. Gas transport
4. Internal respiration
FUNCTIONS
1. Regulation of blood pH
2. Production of chemical mediators
3. Voce production-Air moving past the vocal folds
makes sound and speech possible.
4. Olfaction- The sensation of smell occurs when
airborne molecules are drawn into the nasal
cavity
5. Protection-The respiratory system provides
protection against some microorganisms by
preventing them from entering the body and
removing them from respiratory surfaces.
7 Structures
External nose
Nasal cavity
Pharynx (throat)
Larynx (voice box)
Trachea (windpipe)
Bronchi (branches of trachea)
Lungs
Anatomy
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
- External nose, nasal cavity, pharynx
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
- Larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
Conducting Zone- exclusively for air movement and
extends from the nose to the bronchioles.
NOSE
- Consists of the external nose and nasal cavity
EXTERNAL NOSE – visible structure that forms a
prominent feature of the face.
NARES (nostrils) – external openings of the nose
CHOANAE – openings into the pharynx; posterior
structures
Vestibule -The vestibule is lined with stratified
squamous epithelium, which is continuous with the
stratified squamous epithelium of the skin
HARD PALATE – floor of the nasal cavity; separates the
nasal and oral cavity
NASAL CAVITY –open chamber inside the nose where
air first enters the respiratory system. extends from the
nares to the choanae
NASAL SEPTUM – a partition dividing the nasal cavity
into right and left parts
DEVIATED NASAL SEPTUM – occurs when the septum
bulges to one side
CONCHAE – three prominent bony ridges on the lateral
walls on each side of the nasal cavity; increase the
surface area of the nasal cavity and cause air to churn
MEATUS- tunnels where air passes through
PARANASAL SINUSES – air-filled spaces within bone
NASOLACRIMAL DUCTS – carry tears from the eyes
SNEEZE REFLEX – dislodges foreign substances from
the nasal cavity.
Functions of nasal cavity
1. Serves as a passageway for air.
2. Cleans the air
3. Humidifies and warms the air.
4. Contains the olfactory epithelium.
5. Helps determine voice sound.
PHARYNX
- Common passageway for both the respiratory and
digestive systems. receives air from the nasal cavity and
receives air, food, and drink from the oral cavity
THREE REGIONS:
1. NASOPHARYNX – superior part; contains openings on
each side from the auditory tubes that are continuous
with the middle ear.
a. SOFT PALATE – an incomplete muscle and
connective tissue partition separating the
nasopharynx from the oropharynx
b. UVULA – posterior extension of the soft palate
c. PHARYNGEAL TONSIL – helps defend the
body against infection
2. OROPHARYNX – extends from the uvula to the
Epiglottis; air, food, and drink all pass through the
oropharynx.
a. PALATINE TONSILS – located in the lateral
walls near the border of the oral cavity and the
oropharynx
b. LINGUAL TONSIL – located on the surface of
the posterior part of the tongue
FAUCES- the narrow passage from the mouth to the
pharynx between the soft palate and the base of the
tongue.
3. LARYNGOPHARYNX – passes posterior to the
larynx and extends from the tip of the epiglottis to
the esophagus; lined with stratified squamous epith.
and ciliated columnar epith.
LARYNX (Voice box)
- Passageway for air between the pharynx and trachea
- held in place by membranes and/or muscles superior
to the hyoid bone
- Has 3 unpaired cartilages and 6 paired cartilages
UNPAIRED (3):
1. THYROID CARTILAGE – Adam’s apple; largest
cartilage
2. CRICOID CARTILAGE – most inferior, forms the
base of the larynx
3. EPIGLOTTIS – 3rd unpaired cartilage; consist of
elastic cartilage; is attached to the thyroid cartilage and
projects superiorly as a free flap toward the tongue
PAIRED (6): they form an attachment site for the vocal
folds
1. CUNEIFORM CARTILAGE (wedge)– Top; contained in
a mucous membrane anterior to the corniculate
cartilages
2. CORNICULATE CARTILAGE (horn)– Middle; attached
to the superior tips of the arytenoid cartilages.
3. ARYTENOID CARTILAGE (ladle) – Bottom; the
posterior, superior border of the cricoid cartilage
2 PAIRS OF LGAMENTS
VESTIBULAR FOLDS – false vocal cords; superior
mucous membrane.
VOCAL FOLDS/CORDS – true vocal cords; inferior
mucous membrane
GLOTTIS-The combination of the vocal folds and the
opening between them
 LARYNGITIS – inflammation of the mucous
epith. of the vocal folds
TRACHEA(Windpipe)
- Membranous tube attached to the larynx
- Consists of CT and smooth muscle; Reinforced with 15-
20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage
TRACHEALIS MUCLE- an elastic ligamentous membrane
and bundles of smooth muscle
C-SHAPED CARTILAGES – form the anterior and
lateral sides of the trachea; protect the trachea and
maintain an open passageway for air
 COUGH REFLEX – dislodges foreign substances
from the trachea
 SMOKER’S COUGH – results from constant
irritation and inflammation of the respiratory
passages by cigarette smoke
BRONCHI
- The trachea divides into the left and right main
bronchi or primary bronchi, each of which connects to a
lung - Consists of 6 LAYERS:
CARINA- tracheal cartilage separating the openings into 1. Thin layer of fluid lining the alveolus
the main bronchi forms a ridge 2. Alveolar epithelium – composed of simple squamous
LEFT MAIN BRONCHUS – more horizontal because it epithelium
is displaced by the heard 3. Basement membrane of the alveolar epith.
RIGHT MAIN BRONCHUS – where foreign objects 4. Thin interstitial space
that enter the trachea usually lodge; more vertical. 5. Basement membrane of the capillary endothelium
LUNGS 6. Capillary endothelium – simple squamous epith.
- tracheal cartilage separating the openings into the PLEURAL CAVITIES
main bronchi forms a ridge - surround the lungs and provide protection against
- Principal organs of respiration friction
RIGHT LUNG – has 3 lobes (superior, middle, PLEURA – serous membrane lining the pleural cavity
inferior) • PARIETAL PLEURA – lines the walls of the
LEFT LUNG – has 2 lobes (superior, inferior) thorax, diaphragm and mediastinum
- The lobes of the lungs are separated by deep, • VISCERAL PLEURA – covers the surface of the
prominent fissures on the lung surface. lung
- Each lobe is divided into Bronchopulmonary segments PLEURAL FLUID – acts as a lubricant and helps hold
separated from one another by CT septa. the pleural membranes together
- The main bronchi branch many times to form the LYMPHATIC SUPPLY
TRACHEOBRONCHIAL TREE. SUPERFICIAL LYMPHATIC VESSELS – are deep to
 MAIN BRONCHI the visceral pleura; they drain lymph from the
o LOBAR BRONCHI – Secondary bronchi superficial lung tissue and the visceral pleura
 SEGMENTAL BRONCHI – DEEP LYMPHATIC VESSELS – follow the bronchi;
Tertiary bronchi they drain lymph from the bronchi and associated CTs.
 BRONCHIOLES VENTILATION AND RESP. VOLUMES
 TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES VENTILATION (breathing) – the process of moving air
 RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES into and out of the lungs.
 ALVEOLI – small, air- 2 PHASES:
filled chambers where 1. INSPIRATION – inhalation; movement of air into
the air and the blood the lungs
come into close contact 2. EXPIRATION – exhalation; movement of air out of
with each other. the lungs
CHANGING THORACIC VOLUME
 ALVEOLAR DUCTS –
MUSCLES OF INSPIRATION – include the diaphragm
long, branching
and the muscles that elevate the ribs and sternum, such
hallways with many
as the external intercostals
open doorways
• DIAPHRAGM – a large dome of skeletal
 ALVEOLAR SACS-
muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from
chambers connected to
abdominal cavity
two or more alveoli
MUSCLES OF EXPIRATION – internal intercostals;
BRONCHODILATION- occurs when the smooth muscle depress the ribs and sternum.
relaxes, making the bronchiole diameter larger PRESSURE CHANGES AND AIRFLOW
BRONCHOCONSTRICTION- occurs when the smooth Two physical principles that govern the airflow:
muscle contracts, making the bronchiole diameter 1. Changes in volume result in changes in pressure.
smaller. 2. Air flows from an area of higher pressure to an area
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE OF THE LUNGS – of lower pressure
where gas exchange between the air and blood takes - During INSPIRATION, air flows into the alveoli
place because atmospheric pressure is greater than the
- It is very thin to facilitate the diffusion of gases alveolar pressure.
- During EXPIRATION, air flows out of the alveoli
because alveolar pressure is greater than atmospheric
pressure.
LUNG RECOIL
- The tendency for an expanded lung to decrease in size.
- When thoracic volume and lung volume decrease
during quiet expiration.
- Two factors keep the lungs from collapsing:
SURFACTANT and PLEURAL PRESSURE.
SURFACTANT – reduces the surface tension of the
fluid lining the alveoli (surface acting agent).
PLEURAL PRESSURE – lower than alveolar pressure,
which causes the alveoli to expand.
CHANGING ALVEOLAR VOLUME
- Increasing thoracic volume results in decreased
pleural pressure, increased alveolar volume, decreased
alveolar pressure, and air movement into the lungs
(inspiration).
- Decreasing thoracic volume results in increased
pleural pressure, decreased alveolar volume, increased
alveolar pressure, and air movement out of the lungs
(expiration).
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES & CAPACITIES
SPIROMETRY – is the process of measuring volumes of
air that move into and out of the respiratory system.
SPIROMETER – device that measures the resp. volumes
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES – are measures of the
amount of air movement during different portions of
ventilation
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES – are sums of two or
more respiratory volumes
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES:
1. TIDAL VOLUME – air inspired or expired with each
breath (at rest, quiet breathing = 500mL)
2. INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME – air that can
be inspired forcefully beyond the resting TV
(3000mL)
3. EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME – air that can be
expired forcefully (1100mL)
4. RESIDUAL VOLUME – air still remaining in the
respiratory passages and lungs after maximum
expiration (1200mL)
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES:
1. FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY – ERV + RV
O Amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of
a normal expiration (2300mL)
2. INSPIRATORY CAPACITY – TV + IRV
O Amount of air a person can inspire maximally after
a normal expiration (3500mL)
3. VITAL CAPACITY – IRV + TV + ERV
O It is the maximum volume of air that a person can
expel from the resp. tract after maximum
inspiration (4600mL)
4. TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY – IRV + ERV + TV +RV
O Also equal to the VC + RV (5800mL)
GAS EXCHANGE
- Gas exchange bet. air and blood occurs in the
respiratory membrane
DEAD SPACE – the parts of the resp. passageways
where gas exchange bet. air and blood does not occur.
RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE THICKNESS
- Increases in the thickness of the respiratory
membrane
result in decreased gas exchange.
SURFACE AREA
- Small decreases in surface area adversely affect gas
exchange during strenuous exercise. When the surface
area is decreased to 1/3 or 1/4 of normal, gas exchange
is restricted under resting conditions.
PARTIAL PRESSURE
- is the pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture of
gases, such as air.
DIFFUSION OF GASES IN THE LUNGS
- O2 diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the
alveoli
to a lower pp in the pulmonary capillaries.
- CO2 diffuses from a higher partial pressure in the
pulmonary capillaries to a lower pp in the alveoli.
DIFFUSION OF GASES IN THE TISSUES
- O2 diffuses from a higher pp in the tissue capillaries to
a lower pp in the tissue spaces.
- CO2 diffuses from a higher pp in the tissues to a lower
pp in the tissue capillaries.
GAS TRANSPORT IN THE BLOOD
OXYGEN TRANSPORT
OXYHEMOGLOBIN – hemoglobin with oxygen bound
to its heme groups
MORE OXYGEN IS RELEASED FROM
HEMOGLOBIN IF (FOUR FACTORS):
1. Partial pressure for O2 is low
2. Partial pressure for CO2 is high
3. pH is low
4. Temperature is high
CO2 TRANSPORT AND BLOOD pH
CARBONIC ANHYDRASE – enzyme that promotes the
uptake of CO2 by RBCs
- As CO2 levels increase, blood pH decreases (becomes
more acidic)
- As CO2 levels decrease, blood pH increases (becomes
more basic)
RHYTHMIC BREATHING
RESPIRATORY AREAS IN THE BRAINSTEM
MEDULLARY RESPIRATORY CENTER – establishes
rhythmic breathing
O DORSAL RESPIRATORY GROUPS (2) – primarily
responsible for stimulating contraction of the
diaphragm.
O VENTRAL RESPIRATORY GROUPS (2) – primarily
responsible for stimulating the external and internal
intercostal, and abdominal muscles.
o PRE-BOTZINGER COMPLEX – establish the
basic rhythm of breathing
PONTINE RESPIRATORY GROUP – is a collection of
neurons in the pons.
- It plays a role in switching between inspiration and
expiration.
GENERATION OF RHYTHMIC BREATHING
- involves the integration of stimuli that start and stop
inspiration
1. Starting inspiration
2. Increasing inspiration
3. Stopping inspiration
NERVOUS CONTROL OF BREATHING
HIGHER BRAIN CENTERS – allow voluntary control
of breathing.
HERING-BREUER REFLEX – supports rhythmic
respiratory movements by limiting the extent of
inspiration
TOUCH, THERMAL, PAIN RECEPTORS – can
stimulate breathing.
CHEMICAL CONTROL OF BREATHING
HYPERCAPNIA – a greater than normal amount of CO2
in the blood
CARBON DIOXIDE – major chemical regulator of
breathing
CHEMORECEPTORS (in medulla oblongata) –
respond to changes in blood pH
CHEMORECEPTORS (in carotid and aortic bodies) –
respond to changes in blood O2.
HYPOXIA – a condition when blood O2 declines to a
low level
EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON BREATHING
1. Breathing increases abruptly
2. Breathing increases gradually
ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD – the highest level of
exercise that can be performed without causing a
significant change in blood pH
RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS TO EXERCISE
- Training results in increased minute volume at
maximal exercise because of increased TV and
respiratory rate.
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE RESP. SYSTEM
1. VC and Maximum min. ventilation decrease
2. RV and dead space increase
3. Increase in resting TV compensates for increased
dead space, loss of alveolar walls, and thickening of
alveolar walls
4. The ability to remove mucus from respiratory
passageways decrease with age.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS (IDEA)
1. Ingestion of food.
2. Digestion of food.
3. Elimination of wastes.
4. Absorption of nutrients.
ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY
Digestive Tract / Gastrointestinal Tract
§ Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, anus
Four Tunics
1. Mucosa
§ Innermost tunic
§ Consists of mucous epithelium, lamina propria
(loose CT), muscularis mucosae (thins SM layer)
§ Mouth, esophagus, anus; resists abrasion
§ Stomach, intestine; absorbs and secrets
2. Submucosa
§ Thick layer of loose CT, consists of nerves, blood
vessels, small glands
§ Plexus – extensive network of nerve cell
processes (innervated by the autonomic nerves)
3. Muscularis
§ Consists of circular SM (inner), longitudinal SM
(outer)
§ Enteric nervous system – composed of the
nerve plexuses of the submucosa and
muscularis; controls movement and secretion
within the tract
4. Serosa
§ Outermost layer
§ Consists of the peritoneum (smooth epithelial
layer + underlying CT)
§ Adventitia – connective tissue; regions of the DT
not covered by the peritoneum
Peritoneum
1. Visceral Peritoneum / Serosa – serous
membrane that covers the organs
2. Parietal Peritoneum – serous membrance that
covers the wall of the abdominal cavity
Mesenteries – CT sheets that hold the abdominal cavity
organs in place
a. Lesser omentum – connects the lesser curvature
of the stomack to the liver and diaphragm
b. Greater omentum – connects the greater
curvature of the stomach to the transverse colon
and posterior body wall
v Omental bursa – a long, double fold of
mesentery that extends inferiorly from
the stomach before looping back to the
transverse colon to create a
cavity/pocket
v Mesentery proper – attaches the small
intestine to the posterior abdominal wall
Retroperitoneal – abdominal organs that have no
mesenteries; duodenum, pancreas, ascending +
descending colon, rectum, kidneys, adrenal glands,
urinary bladder
ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX, AND ESOPHAGUS
Anatomy of Oral Cavity
§ Bounded by the lips and cheeks ++ contains the
teeth and tongue
Lips – muscular structures formed by the orbicularis
oris muscle
Cheeks – buccinators muscles flatten the cheeks against
teeth
Mastification – begins the process of mechanical
digestion
Tongue – plays a major role in the process of
swallowing; major sensory organ for taste; one of the
major organs of speech
v Frenulum – thin fold of tissue inferior to the
tongue
Teeth
§ 32 teeth in normal adult mouth
§ Located in the mandible and maxillae
1. Incisor – to cut
2. Canine – to tear
3. Premolars
4. Molars
5. Wisdom teeth – third molars
Permanent teeth – secondary teeth
Primary teeth – deciduous teeth; milk or baby teeth
Parts
a. Crown
b. Cusps
c. Neck
d. Root
Pulp cavity – center of the tooth; contains blood vessels
nerves, and pulp (connective tissue)
Dentin – bonelike tissue that surrounds the pulp cavity
Enamel – extremely hard, acellular substance that
covers
the dentin of the tooth drown
Cementum – covers the surface of the dentin in the
root; anchors the tooth in the jaw.
Alveoli (along the alveolar process of mandible x
maxillae) – where the teeth are rooted
Gingiva – dense fibrous CT and most stratified
squamous epithelium that covers the alveolar processes
Periodontal ligaments – CT fibers that extend from the
alveolar walls that hold the teeth in place
Dental caries / Tooth decay – result of the breakdown
of
enamel by acids produced by bacteria on tooth surface
Periodontal disease – inflammation x degeneration of
the periodontal ligaments, gingiva, alveolar bone
Palate and Tonsils
Palate – roof of the oral cavity; prevents food from
passing into the nasal cavity during chewing and
swallowing
a. Hard palate – anterior part that contains bone
b. Soft palate – posterior portion that consists of
skeletal muscle _ CT
v Uvula – grape-like; posterior extension of the
soft palate
Tonsils – protect against pathogens from entering the
nose and mouth
Salivary Glands
§ Produce saliva (serous + mucous fluids)
3 Pairs of SG
1. Parotid glands – largest; serous glands located
anterior to each ear
2. Submandibular glands – produce more serous
than mucous secretions
3. Sublingual glands – smallest; produce
primarily mucous secretions
Mumps – inflammation of the parotid gland caused by
viral infection
Saliva
§ Helps keep the oral cavity moist
§ Contains enzymes that begin the process of
digestion
Salivary amylase – a digestive enzyme that breaks the
covalent bonds bet. glucose molecules (starch) and
other
polysaccharides; enhances the sweet taste of food
Lysozyme – enzyme that has weak antibacterial action
Mastification
§ Breaks large food particles into many small ones
§ Increases the efficiency of digestion
Pharynx
§ Throat
§ Connects the mouth with the esophagus
§ Oropharynx + laryngopharynx – transmit food
§ Contains pharyngeal constrictor muscles
Esophagus
§ Muscular tube that ransports food from the
pharynx to the stomach
§ Esophageal sphincters – regulate the movement
of food into and out of the esophagus
§ Cardiac sphincter – lower ES
Swallowing / Deglutition
1. Voluntary Phase
§ Bolus (mass of food) us formed in the mouth
§ Bolus is pushed by the tongue forcing in into the
oropharynx
2. Pharyngeal Phase
§ A reflex initiated when a bolus of food
stimulates receptors in the oropharynx
§ Epiglottis – tipped posteriorly to cover the
larynx
3. Esophageal Phase
§ Responsible for moving food form the pharynx
to the stomach
§ Peristaltic waves – muscular contractions of the
esophagus
STOMACH
§ Functions primarily as a storage and mixing
chamber for ingested food
Anatomy
Gastroesophageal opening – opening from the
esophagus ino the stomach
Cardiac region – region of t around the
gastroesophageal opening; near the heart
Fundus – most superior part of the stomach
Body – largest part of the stomach
v Greater curvature
v Lesser curvature
Pyloric opening – opening from the stomach into the
small intestine
Pyloric sphincter – thick ring of smooth muscle
Pyloric region – region near the pyloric opening
Outer longitudinal, middle circular, and inner obique
layer – produce a churning action in the stomach
Rugae – large folds where the submucosa and mucosa
are thrown into when the stomach is empty
Gastric pits – openings for the gastric glands; formed by
simple columnar epithelium
Epithelial cells of the Stomach
1. Surface mucous cells – inner surface of stomach
& lining the gastric pits; coats and protects the
stomach lining
2. Mucous neck cells – produce mucus
3. Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid &
intrinsic factor
4. Endocrine cells – produce regulatory chemicals
5. Chief cells – produce pepsinogen (precursor of
the protein digesting enzyme pepsin)
Secretions of the Stomach
Chyme – semifluid mixture (food + stomach secretions)
1. Hydrochloric acid kills microorganisms and
activates pepsin
2. Pepsin breaks covalent bond of proteins to form
smaller peptide chains.
3. Mucus lubricates and protects epithelial cells
from the damaging effect of acidic chime +
pepsin
4. Intrinsic factor binds with vit. B12 (DNA
synthesis and RBC prod.) and makes it more
readily absorbed in the small intestine
Regulation of Stomach Secretions
1. Cephalic phase – stomach secretions are
initiated by the sight, smell, taste, or thought of
food
2. Gastric phase – partially digested proteins and
distention of the stomach promote secretion
O Gastrin – hormone that enters the
circulation and is carried back to the
stomach
3. Intestinal phase – acidic chime in the
duodenum stimulates neuronal reflexes and the
secretion of hormones that inhibit gastric
secretions by negative feedback loops
O Secretin – hormone that inhibits gastric
secretions; released from the duodenum
in response to low pH
O Cholecystokinin – major inhibitor of
gastric motility; released from the
duodenum initiated by fatty acids and
peptides
Movement in the Stomach
§ Increased motility = increases emptying
§ Distention of stomach = increases gastric
motility
A. Mixing waves – thoroughly mix ingested food
with stomach secretions to form chime
O Fluid part of chime – pushed toward
the pyloric sphincter
O Solid center – moves back toward the
body of the stomach
B. Peristaltic waves – force the chime toward and
through the pyloric sphincter
SMALL INTESTINE
§ Major site of digestion and absorption of food
§ Major function is the absorption of nutrients
Anatomy
1. Duodenum – 12 in. long
2. Jejunum – 2.5 m long; makes up 2/5
3. Ileum – 3.5 m long; makes up 3/5
Common bile duct (liver) and pancreatic duct
(pancreas) – join and empty into the duodenum
Increased surface area
1. Circular folds – formed by mucosa and
submucosa that run perpendicular to the long
axis of the digestive tract
2. Villi – formed by tiny, fingerlike projections of
the mucosa
3. Microvilli – numerous cytoplasmic extensions
on the surface of the villi
Lacteal – lymphatic capillary
Simple Columnar Epithelium
1. Absorptive cells – have microvilli, produce
digestive enzymes, absorb digested food
2. Goblet cells – produce a protective mucus
3. Granular cells – help protect the intestinal
epithelium from bacteria
4. Endocrine cells – produce regulatory hormones
Intestinal glands – epithelial cells produced within
tubular galnds of mucosa
Duodenal glands – mucous glands in the submucosa of
the duodenum
Peyer patches – clusters of lymphatic nodules along the
digestive tract
Ileocecal junction – where the ileum connects to the
large intestine
Ileocecal sphincter – ring of smooth muscle
Ileocecal valve – allow intestinal contents to move from
the ileum to the large intestine; but not in opposite
direction
Secretions of the Small Intestine
1. Peptidases – break peptide bonds in proteins to
form amino acids
2. Disaccharidases – break down disaccharides
(maltose) into monosaccharides (glucose)
Movement of the Small Intestine
A. Peristaltic contractions – proceed along the
length of the intestine for variable distances;
causes the chime to move along the small
intestine
B. Segmental contractions – propagate for shot
distances; mix intestinal contents
LIVER AND PANCREAS
Anatomy of Liver
Major Lobes
1. Right lobe
2. Left lobe
Falciform ligament – CT septum that separates the right
and left lobe of the liver.
Smaller Lobes
1. Caudate lobe
2. Quadrate lobe
Porta – gate through which blood vessels, ducts, and
nerves enter and exit the liver
Sources of Blood in the Liver
1. Hepatic artery – takes oxygen-rich blood to the
liver; supplies liver with oxygen
2. Hepatic portal vein – oxygen-poor blood but
rich in nutrients
Hepatic veins – where blood exits the liver and empty
into the inferior vena cava
Portal Triads
1. Hepatic artery
2. Hepatic portal vein
3. Hepatic duct
Hepatic cords – located bet. the center and margins of
each lobule
Hepatocytes – platelike groups that form the hepatic
cords
Hepatic sinusoids – blood channels that separates the
hepatic cords from one another
Central vein – where mixed blood flows toward the
center of each lobule
Bile canaliculus – a cleftlike lumen bet. the cells of each
hepatic cord
Common hepatic duct – right + left hepatic ducts
Common bile duct – common hepatic duct + cystic duct
Gallbladder – stores and concentrates bile
Duodenal papilla – where the common bile duct joind
the pancreatic duct and opens into the duodenum
Functions of the Liver termination of sigmoid colon & ends at the anal
1. Digestion canal
2. Excretion Anal Canal
3. Nutrient storage § Begins at the inferior end of the rectum and ends
4. Nutrient conversion at the anus (external digestive tract opening)
5. Detoxification of harmful chemicals Internal anal sphincter – smooth muscle layer at
6. Synthesis of new molecules superior end
Bile – dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid; dramatically External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle at inferior end
increases the efficiency of fat digestion and absorption; Hemorrhoids – enlarged or inflamed rectal or
stimulated by secretin hemorrhoidal, veins that supply the anal canal; may
Bile salts – emulsify fats cause pain, itching, bleeding around anus
Bilirubin – bile pigment that results from the Functions of Large Intestine
breakdown of hemoglobin 1. Feces production
Anatomy of Pancreas 2. Water absorption
1. Head – near the midline of the body MAVM.
2. Tail – extends to the left Feces – converted chyme
Pancreatic islet / Islets of Langerhans – endocrine part; Defecation – elimination of feces from the colon
produce insulin and glucagon Mass movements – strong contractions in the large
Compound acinar gland – exocrine part parts
Acini – produce digestive enymes of the colon; propel the colon contents a considerable
Pancreatic duct – formed by larger ducts from clusters distance towards the anys
of acini Defecation reflex – local (weak contractions) +
Functions of the Pancreas parasympathetic (strong contractions) reflexes
Major Proteolytic enzymes – continue protein digestion DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND TRANSPORT
that began in the stomach Digestion – breakdown of food to molecules tha are
1. Trypsin small enough to be absorbed into the circulation
2. Chymotrypsin a. Mechanical digestion – breaks large good
3. Carboxypeptidase particles into smaller ones
Pancreatic amylase – continues polysaccharide b. Chemical digestion – breaking of covalent
digestion chemical bonds in organic molecules by
that began in the oral cavity digestive enzymes
Lipase – lipid-digesting enzyme Absorption – begin in stomach; lipid-soluble molecules
Nucleases – enzymes that degrade DNA and RNA to diffuse through the stomach epithelium into the
their component nucleotides circulation
LARGE INTESTINE Transport – requires carrier molecules and includes
Anatomy facilitated diffusion, cotransport, and active transport
Cecum Carbohydrates
§ Proximal end of the large intestine § Consist primarily of starches, cellulose, sucrose
Appendix – 9 cm tube attached to the cecum (table sugar), small amounts of fructose (fruit
Colon sugar), and lactose (milk sugar)
1. Ascending colon Polysaccharides – large carbohydrates that consist of
2. Transverse colon many sugars linked by chemical bonds
3. Descending colon Salivary amylase – begins the digestion of
4. Sigmoid colon carbohydrates in the mouth
Crypts – straight, tubular glands in the mucosal lining of Pancreatic amylase – continues digestion of
the colon carbohydrates
Teniae coli – three bands Disaccharides – two sugars; broken down
Rectum polysaccharide
§ Straight, muscular tube that begins at the Disaccharidase – group of enzymes that break the
disaccharides to monosaccharides
Monosaccharides – single sugars; glucose, galactose,
and fructose
Lipids
§ Molecules which are insoluble or slightly
soluble in water
Triglycerides – most common type of lipid; 3 fatty acids
bound to glycerol
Saturated – fatty acids have only single bonds
Unsaturated – fatty acids have one or more double
bonds
Emulsification – large lipid droplets are transformed
into much smaller droplets
Lipase – secreted by pancreas; digests lipid molecules
Micelles – aggregated bile salts around small droplets of
digested lipids
Chylomicrons – packaged lipid-protein complexes
(lipoproteins)
Chyle – lymph containing late amounts of absorbed
lipid
Proteins
§ Chains of amino acids
Pepsin – enzyme secreted by stomach that breaks down
proteins
Polypeptides – shorter amino acid chains
Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase – enzymes
produced by pancreas that continue the digestive
process
Peptidases – small peptides
Water and Minerals
§ Approximately 9 L of water enters the digestive
tract
§ Approximately 2 L from food & drink &
remaining 7 liters is from digestive secretions