ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Types of Muscles • Individual skeletal muscles, such as the biceps
Skeletal brachii, are complete organs, as a result of being
• attached to bones comprised of several tissues: muscle, nerve, and
• striated connective tissue.
• voluntarily controlled
Connective Tissue Coverings
Cardiac
• Each skeletal muscle is surrounded by a
• located in the heart
• striated connective tissue sheath called the epimysium.
• involuntarily controlled • A skeletal muscle is subdivided into groups of
Smooth muscle cells, termed fascicles.
• Located in blood vessels, hollow organs • Each fascicle is surrounded by a connective
• Non-striated tissue covering, termed the perimysium.
• involuntarily controlled • Each skeletal muscle cell (fiber) is surrounded
The Muscular System by a connective tissue covering, termed the
Functions endomysium.
1. Movement
Skeletal Muscle Fiber Anatomy
2. Maintain posture
• A muscle fiber is a large cell, with several
3. Respiration
hundred nuclei located at its periphery.
4. Production of body heat
• Muscle fibers range in length 1 mm to 30 cm.
5. Communication
• Alternating light and dark bands give muscle
6. Constriction of organs and vessels
fibers a striated appearance.
7. Contraction of the heart
• The number of muscle fibers remains constant
Functional Properties of Muscles after birth so enlargement of muscles results from
• Contractility - the ability of muscle to shorten an increase in the size of muscle fibers, not an
forcefully, or contract increase in fiber number.
• Excitability - the capacity of muscle to respond
Electrical Component Structures 1
to a stimulus
• The sarcolemma (cell membrane) has many
• Extensibility - the ability to be stretched beyond
tubelike inward folds, called transverse tubules,
its normal resting length and still be able to
or T tubules.
contract
• T tubules occur at regular intervals along the
• Elasticity - the ability of the muscle to recoil to
muscle fiber and extend into the center of the
its original resting length after it has been
muscle fiber.
stretched
• The T tubules are associated with enlarged
Whole Skeletal Muscle Anatomy 1 portions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
• Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, with its called the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
associated connective tissue, constitutes
• The enlarged portions are called terminal
approximately 40% of body weight.
cisternae.
• Skeletal muscle is so named because many of • Two terminal cisternae and their associated T
the muscles are attached to the skeletal system. tubule form a muscle triad.
• Some skeletal muscles attach to the skin or • The sarcoplasmic reticulum has a relatively high
connective tissue sheets. concentration of Ca2+, which plays a major role in
• Skeletal muscle is also called striated muscle muscle contraction.
because transverse bands, or striations, can be • The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber is called the
seen in the muscle under the microscope. sarcoplasm, which contains many bundles of
protein filaments
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LECTURE: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Mechanical Component Structures
• Bundles of protein filaments are called
myofibrils.
• Myofibrils consist of two types of myofilaments,
actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick
filaments).
• Actin and myosin are arranged into repeating
units called sarcomeres.
• The myofilaments in the sarcomere provide for
the mechanical aspect of muscle contraction.
The Sarcomere
• The sarcomere is the basic structural and
functional unit of skeletal muscle.
• Sarcomeres join end to end to create myofibrils.
• Z disks are network of protein fibers that serve
as an anchor for actin myofilaments and separate
one sarcomere from the next.
• A sarcomere extends from one Z disk to the
next Z disk.
• The organization of actin and myosin
myofilaments gives skeletal muscle its striated
appearance and gives it the ability to contract.
• The myofilaments slide past each other, causing
the sarcomeres to shorten.
• Each sarcomere consists of two light-staining
Bands separated by a dark-staining band.
• Light bands, consist only of actin, and are called
I bands. They extend from the Z disc, toward the
center of the sarcomere, to the ends of the
myosin myofilaments.
• Dark staining bands are called A bands. They
extend the length of the myosin myofilaments.
• Actin and myosin myofilaments overlap for
some distance on both ends of the A band; this
overlap causes the contraction.
Myofilament Structure
• Actin myofilaments are made up of three
components: actin, troponin, and tropomyosin.
• Troponin molecules have binding sites for Ca2+
and tropomyosin filaments block the myosin
myofilament binding sites on the actin
myofilaments.
• Myosin myofilaments, or thick myofilaments,
resemble bundles of tiny golf clubs.
• Myosin heads have ATP binding sites, ATPase
and attachment spots for actin.
Neuromuscular Junction Structure
• A motor neuron is a nerve cell that stimulates
muscle cells.
• A neuromuscular junction is a synapse where a
neuron connects with a muscle fiber.
• A synapse refers to the cell-to-cell junction
between a nerve cell and either another nerve
cell or an effector cell, such as in a muscle or a
gland.
• A motor unit is a group of muscle fibers that a
single motor neuron stimulates.
• A presynaptic terminal is the end of a neuron
cell axon fiber.
• A synaptic cleft is the space between the
presynaptic terminal and postsynaptic
membrane.
• The postsynaptic membrane is the muscle fiber
membrane (sarcolemma).
• A synaptic vesicle is a vesicle in the presynaptic
terminal that stores and releases
neurotransmitter chemicals.
• Neurotransmitters are chemicals that stimulate
or inhibit postsynaptic cells.
• Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter that
stimulates skeletal muscles.
Sliding Filament Model
• When a muscle contracts, the actin and myosin
myofilaments in the sarcomere slide past one
another and shorten the sarcomere.
• When sarcomeres shorten, myofibrils, muscle
fibers, muscle fascicles, and muscles all shorten to
produce muscle contraction.
• During muscle relaxation, sarcomeres lengthen.
Excitability of Muscle Fibers
• Muscle fibers are electrically excitable.
• Electrically excitable cells are polarized.
• The inside of the cell membrane is negatively
charged compared with the outside.
• A voltage difference, or electrical charge
difference, exists across each cell membrane.
 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
• The charge difference is due to differences in
concentrations of ions on either side of the
membrane.
Ion Channels
• The phospholipid bilayer is impermeable to
ions.
• Two types of membrane proteins, called ion
channels, permit ions to pass through the
membrane.
• Leak channels allow the slow leak of ions down
their concentration gradient.
• Gated channels may open or close in response
to various types of stimuli.
Resting Membrane Potential
• The electrical charge difference across the cell
membrane of an unstimulated cell is called the
resting membrane potential.
• Muscle cells (fibers) have a resting membrane
potential but can also perform action potentials.
• The resting membrane potential is due to the
inside of the membrane being negatively charged
in comparison to the outside of the membrane
which is positively charged.
• Action potentials are due to the membrane
having gated channels. The resting membrane
potential exists because of:
• The concentration of K+ being higher on the
inside of the cell membrane and the
concentration of Na+ being higher on the outside
• The presence of many negatively charged
molecules, such as proteins, inside the cell that
are too large to exit the cell
• The presence of leak channels in the membrane
that are more permeable to K+ than they are to
Na+
• Na+ tends to diffuse into the cell and K+ tends
to diffuse out.
• In order to maintain the resting membrane
potential, the sodium-potassium pump recreates
the Na+ and K+ ion gradient by pumping Na+ out
of the cell and K+ into the cell.
Action Potentials
• An action potential reverses the resting
membrane potential so that the inside of the cell
becomes positive and the outside negative.
• Occurs because gated ion channels open when
the cell is stimulated.
• The diffusion of ions through these channels
changes the charge across the cell membrane and
produces an action potential.
• Action potential lasts for 1 to 3 milliseconds.
• The entry of Na+ causes the inside of the cell
membrane to become more positive than when
the cell is at resting membrane potential.
• This increase in positive charge inside the cell
membrane is called depolarization.
• If the depolarization changes the membrane
potential to a value called threshold, an action
potential is triggered.
• An action potential is a rapid change in charge
across the cell membrane.
• The action potential travels across the
sarcolemma.
• Near the end of depolarization, the positive
charge causes gated Na+ channels to close and
gated K+ channels to open.
• Opening of gated K+ channels starts
repolarization of the cell membrane.
• Repolarization is due to the exit of K+ from the
cell.
• The outward diffusion of K+ returns the cell to
its resting membrane conditions and the action
potential ends.
• In a muscle fiber, an action potential results in
muscle contraction.
Function of the Neuromuscular Junction
• Each muscle fiber is innervated by a branch of a
motor neuron at a neuromuscular junction.
• Contact between the axon terminal and the
sarcolemma results in an action potential in the
muscle fiber which, in turn, stimulates the fiber to
contract.
• The action potential is stimulated by the release
of acetylcholine from the motor neuron.
 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Muscle Contraction
1. An action potential travels down the motor
neuron to the presynaptic terminal.
2. The action potential causes Ca2+ channels to
open and Ca2+ to enter the terminal.
3. Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to release
acetylcholine into synaptic cleft.
4. Acetylcholine opens Na+ channels in the
sarcolemma and causes an action potential.
5. The action potential travels along the entire
sarcolemma
6. The action potential moves down T tubules.
7. Action potentials open gated Ca2+ channels in
the sarcoplasmic reticulum which releases stored
calcium.
8. Ca2+ binds to troponin which is attached to
actin causing tropomyosin to move exposing
attachment sites for myosin. Myosin heads bind
to actin. Muscles contract when cross bridges
move.
9. The heads of the myosin myofilaments bend,
causing the actin to slide past the myosin. As long
as Ca2+ is present, the cycle repeats.
Cross Bridge Movement
• The mechanical component of muscle
contraction is called cross-bridge cycling.
• The energy from one ATP molecule is required
for one cross bridge cycle.
ATP and Muscle Contractions
• Energy for muscle contractions is supplied by
ATP.
• Energy is released as ATP → ADP + Pi and
energy from ATP is stored in myosin heads.
• A new ATP must bind to myosin before cross-
bridge is released.
• Rigor mortis will occur when a person dies and
no ATP is available to release cross-bridges.
Muscle Relaxation
• Muscle relaxation occurs when acetylcholine is
no longer released at the neuromuscular junction.
• Action potentials to the sarcoplasmic reticulum
stop.
• Ca2+ is actively transported back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum using energy supplied by
ATP.
• Ca2+ diffuses away from the troponin molecules
and tropomyosin again blocks the attachment
sites on the actin molecules.
• The cross-bridge cycle stops and the muscle
relaxes.
Muscle Twitch
• A muscle twitch is a single contraction of a
muscle fiber in response to a stimulus.
• A muscle twitch has three phases: latent phase,
contraction phase, and relaxation phase.
• The latent phase is the time between the
application of a stimulus and the beginning of
contraction.
• The contraction phase is the time during which
the muscle contracts and the relaxation phase is
the time during which the muscle relaxes.
Types of Contractions
• There are two types of muscle contractions:
isometric and isotonic.
• The isometric contraction has an increase in
muscle tension, but no change in length.
• The isotonic contraction increases the tension
in a muscle and decreases the length.
Summation and Recruitment
• The strength of muscle contraction strength
depends on two factors:
• The amount of force in an individual muscle
fiber, called summation
• The amount of force in a whole muscle, called
recruitment.
Motor Unit
• A motor unit consists of a single motor neuron
and all the muscle fibers it innervates.
• An action potential in the neuron of a motor
unit causes contraction of all the muscle fibers in
that unit.
• Small, delicate muscles have very few fibers per
motor unit.
• Large, powerful, less precise muscles have
fewer, larger motor units.
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LECTURE: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Force of Contraction in Individual Muscle Fibers
• Individual muscle fibers can generate different
amounts of force.
• The amount of force generated depends upon
the number of cross-bridges formed.
• More cross-bridges creates more force.
• One factor that influences the number of cross-
bridges formed is the frequency of stimulation.
• A low frequency of stimuli allows a muscle fiber
to undergo twitches that contract then fully relax.
• If the frequency of stimuli increases, the muscle
fiber is unable to relax completely between
twitches, more cross bridges form and
summation occurs. The tension generated by the
muscle increases.
Summation and Recruitment
• Incomplete Tetanus occurs when the frequency
of stimulation only allows for partial relaxation of
the muscle fiber.
• Tetanus is a sustained contraction that occurs
when the frequency of stimulation is so rapid that
no relaxation occurs.
• Recruitment is the stimulation of several motor
units.
Muscle Tone
• Muscle tone is the constant tension produced
by body muscles over long periods of time.
• Muscle tone is responsible for keeping the back
and legs straight, the head in an upright position,
and the abdomen from bulging.
• Muscle tone depends on a small percentage of
all the motor units in a muscle being stimulated at
any point in time, causing their muscle fibers to
contract tetanically and out of phase with one
another.
Types of Isotonic Contractions
• Concentric contractions are isotonic
contractions in which muscle tension increases as
the muscle shortens.
• Eccentric contractions are isotonic contractions
in which tension is maintained in a muscle, but
the opposing resistance causes the muscle to
lengthen.
Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types
Slow twitch fibers
• contract slowly
• fatigue slowly
• have a considerable amount of myoglobin
• use aerobic respiration
• are dark in color
• used by long distance runners
Fast twitch fibers
• contract quickly
• fatigue quickly
• use anaerobic respiration
• energy from glycogen
• light color
• used by sprinters
• Most human muscles have a blend of fast twitch
and slow twitch fibers. The amount of each type
varies for each muscle.
• The large postural muscles of the back and
lower limbs contain more slow-twitch fibers.
• The muscles of the upper limbs contain more
fast-twitch muscle fibers.
Energy for Muscle Contractions
Muscle fibers have three ATP dependent proteins
• The myosin head
• The Na+/K+ ATPase to maintain resting
membrane potential
• The Ca2+ pump in the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Muscle fibers store enough ATP to contract for
about 5–6 seconds. If contraction is to continue
beyond this time, more ATP must be produced.
ATP is derived from four processes in skeletal
muscle.
1. Conversion of two ADP to one ATP and one
adenosine monophosphate (AMP) by the enzyme
adenylate kinase
2. Transfer of a phosphate from a molecule called
creatine (krē′a-tēn) phosphate by the enzyme
creatine kinase from ADP to form ATP
3. Anaerobic production of ATP during intensive
short-term exercise
4. Aerobic production of ATP during most exercise
and normal conditions
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LECTURE: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
ATP Production as Exercise Progresses
• Muscle fibers store enough ATP for about 5 to 6
seconds of contraction.
• Next, ATP production by adenylate kinase and
creatine kinase occurs. This is depleted after
about 15 seconds.
• When a muscle fiber is working too strenuously
for ATP stores and creatine phosphate to be able
to provide enough ATP, anaerobic respiration
predominates.
• Fast-twitch muscle fibers are the primary
anaerobic muscle fibers.
• Slow-twitch fibers utilize aerobic pathways.
• The lactate produced by anaerobic fast-twitch
fibers is used as a starting point for aerobic ATP
production in slow-twitch fibers.
Muscle Fatigue
• Fatigue is a temporary state of reduced work
capacity.
• Without fatigue, muscle fibers would be worked
to the point of structural damage to them and
their supportive tissues.
Mechanisms of fatigue include:
• Acidosis and ATP depletion due to either an
increased ATP consumption or a decreased ATP
production
• Oxidative stress, which is characterized by the
buildup of excess reactive oxygen species (ROS;
free radicals)
• Local inflammatory reactions
Muscle Soreness
• Following vigorous exercise, people sometimes
experience muscle pain, which can last for several
days.
• The pain is related to the effects of
inflammatory chemicals on the muscle fibers.
• Exercise schedules that alternate exercise with
periods of rest, such as lifting weights every other
day, provide time for the repair of muscle tissue.
Oxygen Deficit
• There are two distinct phases of O2 use:
• Oxygen deficit is the lag time between when a
person begins to exercise and when they begin to
breathe more heavily because of the exercise.
• Excess postexercise oxygen consumption is the
lag time before breathing returns to its
preexercise rate once exercise stops.
Smooth Muscle
• Smooth muscle cells are non-striated small,
spindle-shaped muscle cells, usually with one
nucleus per cell.
• The myofilaments are not organized into
sarcomeres.
• The cells comprise organs controlled
involuntarily, except the heart.
• Neurotransmitter substances, hormones, and
other factors can stimulate smooth muscle.
Cardiac Muscle
• Cardiac muscle cells are long, striated, and
branching, with usually only one nucleus per cell.
• Cardiac muscle is striated as a result of the
sarcomere arrangement.
• Cardiac muscle contraction is autorhythmic.
• Cardiac muscle cells are connected to one
another by specialized structures that include
desmosomes and gap junctions called
intercalated disks.
• Cardiac muscle cells function as a single unit in
that action potential in one cardiac muscle cell
can stimulate action potentials in adjacent cells.
Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
• A tendon connects skeletal muscle to bone.
• Aponeuroses are broad, sheetlike tendons.
• A retinaculum is a band of connective tissue
that holds down the tendons at each wrist and
ankle.
• Skeletal muscle attachments have an origin and
an insertion, with the origin being the attachment
at the least mobile location.
• The insertion is the end of the muscle attached
to the bone undergoing the greatest movement.
• The part of the muscle between the origin and
the insertion is the belly.
• A group of muscles working together are called
agonists.
• A muscle or group of muscles that oppose
muscle actions are termed antagonists.
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LECTURE: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Muscle Names Pelvic Diaphragm Muscles
Muscles are named according to: • Levator ani
1. Location – a pectoralis muscle is located in the • Ischiocavernosus
chest. • Bulbospongiosus
2. Size – the size could be large or small, short or • Deep transverse perineal
long. • Superficial transverse perineal
3. Shape - the shape could be triangular,
quadrate, Upper Scapular and Limb Muscles
rectangular, or round. Trapezius:
4. Orientation of fascicles – fascicles could run • shoulders and upper back
straight (rectus) or at an angle (oblique). • extends neck and head
Pectoralis major:
5. Origin and insertion. The sternocleidomastoid • chest
has its origin on the sternum and clavicle and its • elevates ribs
insertion on the mastoid process of the temporal
bone. Upper Scapular and Limb Muscles
6. Number of heads. A biceps muscle has two Serratus anterior:
head (origins), and a triceps muscle has three • between ribs
heads (origins). • elevates ribs
7. Function. Abductors and adductors are the Deltoid:
muscles that cause abduction and adduction • shoulder
movements. • abductor or upper limbs

Muscles of Mastication Upper Limb Muscles

• Temporalis Triceps brachii:
• Masseter • 3 heads
• Pterygoids (two pairs) • extends elbow
Biceps brachii:
Thoracic Muscles • “flexing muscle”
External intercostals: • flexes elbow and shoulder
• elevate ribs for inspiration
Internal intercostals: Brachialis:
• depress ribs during forced expiration • flexes elbow
Diaphragm: Latissimus dorsi:
• moves during quiet breathing • lower back
• extends shoulder
Abdominal Wall Muscles
Rectus abdominis: Forearm Muscles
• center of abdomen • Flexor longus
• compresses abdomen • Flexor carpi radialis
External abdominal oblique: • Flexor carpi ulnaris
• sides of abdomen • Flexor digitorum profundus
• compresses abdomen • Flexor digitorum superficialis
• Pronator
Internal abdominal oblique: • Brachioradialis
• compresses abdomen • Extensor carpi radialis brevis
Transverse abdominis:
• compresses abdomen
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LECTURE: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Muscles of Hips and Thighs
Iliopsoas: Gastrocnemius:
• flexes hip • calf
Gluteus maximus: • flexes foot and leg
• buttocks Soleus:
• extends hip and abducts thigh • attaches to ankle
Gluteus medius: • flexes foot
• Hip
• abducts and rotates thigh
Muscles of the Upper Leg
The quadriceps femoris is comprised of 4 thigh
muscles:
The rectus femoris:
• front of thigh
• extends knee and flexes hip
The vastus lateralis:
• extends knee
The vastus medialis:
• extends knee
The vastus intermedius:
• extends knee
Gracilis:
• adducts thigh and flexes knee
Biceps femoris, semimembranosus,
semitendinosus:
• Hamstring
• back of thigh
• flexes knee, rotates leg, extends hip
The rectus femoris:
• front of thigh
• extends knee and flexes hip
The vastus lateralis:
• extends knee
The vastus medialis:
• extends knee
The vastus intermedius:
• extends knee
Muscles of Lower Leg
Tibialis anterior:
• front of lower leg
• inverts foot