Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology

Professor: Sir Magbuhos, Mark

Transcribe by: Gaurano, Kaye

MUSCULAR SYSTEM SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE

TYPES OF MUSCLES • Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle,
 SKELETAL with its associated connective tissue, constitutes
 Attached to bones approximately 40% of body weight.
 Striated • Skeletal muscle is so named because
 Voluntarily controlled many of the muscles are attached to the skeletal
 CARDIAC system.
 Located in the heart • Some skeletal muscles attach to the
 Striaed skin or connective tissue sheets.
 Involuntarily controlled • Skeletal muscle is also called striated
 SMOOTH muscle because transverse bands, or striations,
 located in blood vessels, hollow organs can be seen in the muscle under the microscope.
 non-striated • Individual skeletal muscles, such as the
 involuntarily controlled biceps brachii, are complete organs, as a result
of being comprised of several tissues: muscle,
nerve, and connective tissue.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Functions
1. Movement
2. Maintain posture
3. Respiration
4. Production of body heat
5. Communication
6. Heart beat
7. Contraction of organs and vessels
PRORPERTIES OF MUSCLES
• Contractility - the ability of muscle to
shorten forcefully, or contract
• Excitability - the capacity of muscle to
respond to a stimulus
• Extensibility - the ability to be
stretched beyond it normal resting length and
still be able to contract
• Elasticity - the ability of the muscle to
recoil to its original resting length after it has
been stretched

CONNECTIVE TISSUE COVERINGS
• Each skeletal muscle is surrounded by
a connective tissue sheath called the
epimysium.
• A skeletal muscle is subdivided into
groups of muscle cells, termed fascicles.
• Each fascicle is surrounded by a
connective tissue covering, termed the
perimysium.
• Each skeletal muscle cell (fiber) is
surrounded by a connective tissue covering,
termed the endomysium.
MUSCLE FIBER STRUCTURE
• A muscle fiber is a single cylindrical
cell, with several nuclei located at its periphery.
• Muscle fibers range in length 1 cm to
30 cm and are generally 0.15 mm in diameter.
• Skeletal muscle fibers contain several
nuclei that are located at the periphery of the
fiber.
• The sarcolemma (cell membrane) has
many tubelike inward folds, called transverse
tubules, or T tubules.
• T tubules occur at regular intervals
along the muscle fiber and extend into the center
of the muscle fiber.
• The T tubules are associated with
enlarged portions of the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum called the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
• The enlarged portions are called
terminal cisternae.
• T tubules connect the sarcolemma to
the terminal cisternae to form a muscle triad.
• The sarcoplasmic reticulum has a
relatively high concentration of Ca2+, which
plays a major role in muscle contraction.
• The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber is
called the sarcoplasm, which contains many
bundles of protein filaments.
• Bundles of protein filaments are called
myofibrils.
• Myofibrils consist of the
myofilaments, actin and myosin.
THE SARCOMERE
• The sarcomere is the basic structural
and functional unit of a skeletal muscle because
it is the smallest portion of a skeletal muscle
capable of contracting.
• Z disks form a network of protein
fibers that both serve as an anchor for actin
myofilaments and separate one sarcomere from
the next.
• A sarcomere extends from one Z disk
to the next Z disk.
• The organization of actin and myosin
myofilaments gives skeletal muscle its striated
appearance and gives it the ability to contract.
• The myofilaments slide past each other,
causing the sarcomeres to shorten.
• Each sarcomere consists of two light-
staining bands separated by a dark-staining
band.
• Light bands, consist only of actin, and
are called I bands that extends toward the
center of the sarcomere to the ends of the
myosin myofilaments.
• Dark staining bands are called A
bands, that extend the length of the myosin
myofilaments.
• Actin and myosin myofilaments
overlap for some distance on both ends of the A
band; this overlap causes the contraction.
• Actin myofilaments are made up of
three components: actin, troponin, and
tropomyosin.
• Troponin molecules have binding sites
for Ca2+ and tropomyosin filaments block the
myosin myofilament binding sites on the actin
myofilaments.
• Myosin myofilaments, or thick
myofilaments, resemble bundles of tiny golf
clubs.
• Myosin heads have ATP binding sites,
ATPase and attachment spots for actin.
Note: Anaphy 1
EXCITABILITY OF MUSCLE FIBERS
• The electrical charge difference across
the cell membrane of an unstimulated cell is
called the resting membrane potential.
• Muscle cells (fibers) have a resting
membrane potential, but can also perform action
potentials.
• The resting membrane potential is due
to the inside of the membrane being negatively
charged in comparison to the outside of the
membrane being positively charged.
• Action potentials are due to the
membrane having gated channels.
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
• The resting membrane potential exists
because of:
• The concentration of K+ being higher
on the inside of the cell membrane and the
concentration of Na+ being higher on the
outside
• The presence of many negatively
charged molecules, such as proteins, inside the
cell that are too large to exit the cell
• The presence of leak protein channels
in the membrane that are more permeable to K+
than it is to Na+
• Na+ tends to diffuse into the cell and
K+ tends to diffuse out.
• In order to maintain the resting
membrane potential, the sodiumpotassium pump
recreates the Na+ and K+ ion gradient by
pumping Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the
cell.  nerve cell or an effector cell, such as in a muscle
ACTION POTENTIAL
• To initiate a muscle contraction, the
resting membrane potential must be changed to
an action potential.
• Changes in the resting membrane
potential occur when gated cell membrane
channels open.
• In a skeletal muscle fiber, a nerve
impulse triggers gated Na+ channels to open and
Na+ diffuses into the cell down its concentration
gradient and toward the negative charges inside
the cell.
• The entry of Na+ causes the inside of
the cell membrane to become more positive than
when the cell is at resting membrane potential.
• This increase in positive charge inside
the cell membrane is called depolarization.
• If the depolarization changes the
membrane potential to a value called threshold,
an action potential is triggered.
• An action potential is a rapid change in
charge across the cell membrane.
• Depolarization during the action
potential is when the inside of the cell
membrane becomes more positively charged
than the outside of the cell membrane.
• Near the end of depolarization, the
positive charge causes gated Na+ channels to
close and gated K+ channels to open.
• Opening of gated K+ channels starts
repolarization of the cell membrane.
• Repolarization is due to the exit of K+
from the cell.
• The outward diffusion of K+ returns
the cell to its resting membrane conditions and
the action potential ends.
• In a muscle fiber, an action potential
results in muscle contraction.
DEPOLARIZATION
• change in charges inside becomes more + and
outside more – Na+ channels open.
REPOLARIZATION
• Na+ channels close change back to resting
potential.
NERVE SUPPLY
• A motor neuron is a nerve cell
stimulates muscle cells.
• A neuromuscular junction is a
synapse where a the fiber of a nerve connects
with a muscle fiber.
• A synapse refers to the cell-to-cell
junction between a nerve cell and either another
or a gland.
• A motor unit is a group of muscle
fibers that a motor neuron stimulates.
• A presynaptic terminal is the end of a
neuron cell axon fiber.
• A synaptic cleft is the space between
the presynaptic terminal and postsynaptic
membrane.
• The postsynaptic membrane is the
muscle fiber membrane (sarcolemma).
• A synaptic vesicle is a vesicle in the
presynaptic terminal that stores and releases
neurotransmitter chemicals.
MUSCLE COTRACTION
1. An action potential travels down motor
neuron to presynaptic terminal causing Ca2+
channels to open.
2. Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to
release acetylcholine into synaptic cleft.
3. Acetylcholine binds to receptor sites on
Na+ channels, Na+ channels open, and Na+
rushes into postsynaptic terminal
(depolarization).
4. Na+ causes sarcolemma and t-tubules
to increase the permeability of sarcoplasmic
reticulum which releases stored calcium.
5. Ca2+ binds to troponin which is
attached to actin.
6. Ca2+ binding to troponin causes
tropomyosin to move exposing attachment sites
for myosin.
7. Myosin heads bind to actin.
8. ATP is released from myosin heads and
heads bend toward center of sarcomere.
9. Bending forces actin to slide over
myosin.
10. Acetylcholinesterase (enzyme breaks
down acetylcholine) is released, Na+ channels
close, and muscle contraction stops.
ATP AND MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS
• Energy for muscle contractions is
supplied by ATP
• Energy is released as ATP → ADP + P
• ATP is stored in myosin heads
• ATP help form cross-bridge formation
between myosin and actin
• New ATP must bind to myosin before
cross-bridge is released
• Rigor mortis will occur when a person
dies and no ATP is available to release cross-
bridges
MUSCLE TWITCH
• A muscle twitch is a single contraction
of a muscle fiber in response to a stimulus.
• A muscle twitch has three phases:
latent phase, contraction phase, and relaxation
phase.
• The latent phase is the time between
the application of a stimulus and the beginning
of contraction.
• The contraction phase is the time
during which the muscle contracts and the
relaxation phase is the time during which the
muscle relaxes.
SUMMATION AND RECRUITMENT
• In summation, individual muscles
contract more forcefully.
• Tetanus is a sustained contraction that
occurs when the frequency of stimulation is so
rapid that no relaxation occurs.
• Recruitment is the stimulation of
several motor units.
SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER TYPES
•Slow twitch fibers
 contract slowly
 fatigue slowly
 have a considerable amount of
myoglobin
 use aerobic respiration
 are dark in color
 used by long distance runners
•Fast twitch fibers
 contract quickly
 fatigue quickly
 use anaerobic respiration
 energy from glycogen
 light color
 used by sprinters
• A muscle has a blend of types, with
one type dominating. Humans have both types
of fibers
• The distribution of fibers is genetically
determined 
ENERGY FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS
• Muscle fibers are very energy-
demanding cells whether at rest or during any
form of exercise.
• This energy comes from either aerobic
(with O2) or anaerobic (without O2) ATP
production
• ATP is derived from four processes in
skeletal muscle.
1. Aerobic production of ATP during
most exercise and normal conditions.
2. Anaerobic production of ATP during
intensive short-term work
3. Conversion of a molecule called
creatine phosphate to ATP
4. Conversion of two ADP to one ATP
and one AMP (adenosine monophosphate)
during heavy exercise
MUSCLE FATIGUE
• Fatigue is a temporary state of reduced
work capacity.
• Without fatigue, muscle fibers would
be worked to the point of structural damage to
them and their supportive tissues.
• Mechanisms of fatigue include:
• Acidosis and ATP depletion due to
either an increased ATP consumption or a
decreased ATP production
• Oxidative stress, which is characterized
by the buildup of excess reactive oxygen species
(ROS; free radicals)
• Local inflammatory reactions
TYPES OF CONTRACTIONS
• There are two types of muscle
contractions: isometric and isotonic.
• The isometric contraction has an
increase in muscle tension, but no change in
length.
• The isotonic contraction has a change
in muscle length with no change in tension.
• Concentric contractions are isotonic
contractions in which muscle tension increases
as the muscle shortens.
• Eccentric contractions are isotonic
contractions in which tension is maintained in a
muscle, but the opposing resistance causes the
muscle to lengthen.
MUSCLE TONE
• Muscle tone is the constant tension
produced by body muscles over long periods of
time.
• Muscle tone is responsible for keeping
the back and legs straight, the head in an upright
position, and the abdomen from bulging.
• Muscle tone depends on a small
percentage of all the motor units in a muscle
being stimulated at any point in time, causing
their muscle fibers to contract tetanically and
out of phase with one another.
SMOOTH MUSCLE
• Smooth muscle cells are non-striated
small, spindle-shaped muscle cells, usually with
one nucleus per cell.
• The myofilaments are not organized
into sarcomeres.
• The cells comprise organs controlled
involuntarily, except the heart.
• Neurotransmitter substances,
hormones, and other substances can stimulate
smooth muscle.
CARDIAC MUSCLE
• Cardiac muscle cells are long, striated,
and branching, with usually only one nucleus
per cell.
• Cardiac muscle is striated as a result of
the sarcomere arrangement.
• Cardiac muscle contraction is
autorhythmic.
• Cardiac muscle cells are connected to
one another by specialized structures that
include desmosomes and gap junctions called
intercalated disks.
• Cardiac muscle cells function as a
single unit in that action potential in one cardiac
muscle cell can stimulate action potentials in
adjacent cells.
SKELETAL MUSCLE ANATOMY
• A tendon connects skeletal muscle to
bone.
• Aponeuroses are broad, sheetlike
tendons.
• A retinaculum is a band of connective
tissue that holds down the tendons at each wrist
and ankle.
• Skeletal muscle attachments have an
origin and an insertion, with the origin being the
attachment at the least mobile location.
• The insertion is the end of the muscle
attached to the bone undergoing the greatest
movement.
• The part of the muscle between the
origin and the insertion is the belly.
• A group of muscles working together
are called agonists.
• A muscle or group of muscles that
oppose muscle actions are termed antagonists.
NOMENCLATURE
• Muscles are named according to:
1. Location – a pectoralis muscle is
located in the chest.
2. Size – the size could be large or small,
short or long.
3. Shape - the shape could be triangular,
quadrate, rectangular, or round.
4. Orientation of fascicles – fascicles
could run straight (rectus) or at an angle
(oblique).
5. Origin and insertion. The
sternocleidomastoid has its origin on the
sternum and clavicle and its insertion on the
mastoid process of the temporal bone.
6. Number of heads. A biceps muscle has
two heads (origins), and a triceps muscle has
three heads (origins).
7. Function. Abductors and adductors are • Latissimus dorsi:
the muscles that cause abduction and adduction • lower back
movements. • extends shoulder
FOREARM MUSCLES
Note: Anapahy 1 table 10.1 • Flexor longus
• Flexor carpi radialis
MUSCLES OF MASTICATION
• Flexor carpi ulnaris
• Temporalis • Flexor digitorum profundus
• Masseter • Flexor digitorum superficialis
• Pterygoids (two pairs) • Pronator
• Brachioradialis
Note: Anaphy 1 table 10.2 • Extensor carpi radialis brevis
PE;VIC FLOOR MUSCLES
THORACIC MUSCLES • Levator ani
• External intercostals: • Ischiocavernosus
• elevate ribs for inspiration • Bulbospongiosus
• Internal intercostals: • Deep transverse perineal
• depress ribs during forced expiration • Superficial transverse perineal
• Diaphragm: MUSCLES OF HIPS AND THIGHS
• moves during quiet breathing • Iliopsoas:
• flexes hip • Gluteus maximus:
Note: Anaphy 1 table 10.9 • buttocks
• extends hip and abducts thigh
ABDOMINAL WALL MUSCLES • Gluteus medius:
• Rectus abdominis: • Hip
• center of abdomen • abducts and rotates thigh
• compresses abdomen MUSCLES OF THE UPPER LEG
• External abdominal oblique: • The quadriceps femoris is comprised of
• sides of abdomen 4 thigh muscles:
• compresses abdomen • The rectus femoris:
• Internal abdominal oblique: • front of thigh
• compresses abdomen • extends knee and flexes hip
• Transverse abdominis: • The vastus lateralis:
• compresses abdomen • extends knee
UPPER SCAPULAR AND LIM MUSCLES • The vastus medialis:
• Trapezius: • extends knee
• shoulders and upper back • The vastus intermedius:
• extends neck and head • extends knee
• Pectoralis major: • Gracilis:
• chest • adducts thigh and flexes knee
• elevates ribs • Biceps femoris, semimembranosus,
• Serratus anterior: semitendinosus:
• between ribs • Hamstring
• elevates ribs • back of thigh
• Deltoid: • flexes knee, rotates leg, extends hip
• shoulder • The rectus femoris:
• abductor or upper limbs • front of thigh
UPPER LIMB MUSCLES • extends knee and flexes hip
• Triceps brachii: • The vastus lateralis:
• 3 heads • extends elbow • Biceps • extends knee • The vastus medialis:
brachii: • extends knee
• “flexing muscle” • The vastus intermedius:
• flexes elbow and shoulder • extends knee
• Brachialis: MUSCLES OF LOWER LEG
• flexes elbow • Tibialis anterior:
• front of lower leg
• inverts foot
• Gastrocnemius:
• calf
• flexes foot and leg
• Soleus:
• attaches to ankle
• flexes foot