Anatomy and Physiology, Seventh Edition

Rod R. Seeley
Idaho State University
Trent D. Stephens
Idaho State University
Philip Tate
Phoenix College

Chapter 09
Lecture Outline*
*See PowerPoint Image Slides for all figures and tables pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes.

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Chapter 9
Muscular System:
Histology and Physiology

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 Muscular System Functions

• Body movement
• Maintenance of posture
• Respiration
• Production of body heat
• Communication
• Constriction of organs and vessels
• Heart beat

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 Properties of Muscle
• Contractility: ability of a muscle to shorten
with force
• Excitability: capacity of muscle to respond
to a stimulus
• Extensibility: muscle can be stretched to its
normal resting length and beyond to a
limited degree
• Elasticity: ability of muscle to recoil to
original resting length after stretched
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 Muscle Tissue Types
• Skeletal
– Responsible for locomotion, facial expressions, posture, respiratory
movements, other types of body movement
– Voluntary
• Smooth
– Walls of hollow organs, blood vessels, eye, glands, skin
– Some functions: propel urine, mix food in digestive tract,
dilating/constricting pupils, regulating blood flow
– In some locations, autorhythmic
– Controlled involuntarily by endocrine and autonomic nervous systems
• Cardiac
– Heart: major source of movement of blood
– Autorhythmic
– Controlled involuntarily by endocrine and autonomic nervous systems 9-5
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Skeletal Muscle Structure
• Composed of muscle cells
(fibers), connective tissue, blood
vessels, nerves
• Fibers are long, cylindrical,
multinucleated
• Tend to be smaller diameter in
small muscles and larger in large
muscles. 1 mm- 4 cm in length
• Develop from myoblasts;
numbers remain constant
• Striated appearance due to light
and dark banding
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 • Layers
Connective – External lamina. Delicate, reticular fibers.
Surrounds sarcolemma
Tissue – Endomysium. Loose C.T. with reticular
fibers.
– Perimysium. Denser C.T. surrounding a
group of muscle fibers. Each group called a
fasciculus
– Epimysium. C.T. that surrounds a whole
muscle (many fascicles)
• Fascia: connective tissue sheet
– Forms layer under the skin
– Holds muscles together and separates them
into functional groups.
– Allows free movements of muscles.
– Carries nerves (motor neurons, sensory
neurons), blood vessels, and lymphatics.
– Continuous with connective tissue of tendons
and periosteum.
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Nerve and Blood Vessel Supply
• Motor neurons: stimulate
muscle fibers to contract.
Nerve cells with cell
bodies in brain or spinal
cord; axons extend to
skeletal muscle fibers
through nerves
• Axons branch so that each
muscle fiber is innervated
• Capillary beds surround
muscle fibers

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 Muscle Fiber Anatomy

• Nuclei just inside sarcolemma

• Cell packed with myofibrils within
cytoplasm (sarcoplasm)
– Threadlike
– Composed of protein threads called
myofilaments: thin (actin) and thick (myosin)
– Sarcomeres: highly ordered repeating units of
myofilaments
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Parts of a Muscle

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Structure of Actin and Myosin

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• Two strands of fibrous (F) actin form a
double helix extending the length of
the myofilament; attached at either end
Actin (Thin)
at sarcomere.
– Composed of G actin monomers Myofilaments
each of which has an active site
– Actin site can bind myosin during
muscle contraction.
• Tropomyosin: an elongated protein
winds along the groove of the F actin
double helix.
• Troponin is composed of three
subunits: one that binds to actin, a
second that binds to tropomyosin, and
a third that binds to calcium ions.
Spaced between the ends of the
tropomyosin molecules in the groove
between the F actin strands.
• The tropomyosin/troponin complex
regulates the interaction between
active sites on G actin and myosin.

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 Myosin • Many elongated myosin molecules

(Thick) •
shaped like golf clubs.
Molecule consists of two heavy myosin
molecules wound together to form a
Myofilament rod portion lying parallel to the myosin
myofilament and two heads that extend
laterally.
• Myosin heads
1. Can bind to active sites on the actin
molecules to form cross-bridges.
2. Attached to the rod portion by a
hinge region that can bend and
straighten during contraction.
3. Have ATPase activity: activity that
breaks down adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), releasing
energy. Part of the energy is used to
bend the hinge region of the myosin
molecule during contraction

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Sarcomeres: • Z disk: filamentous network of
protein. Serves as attachment
Z Disk to Z for actin myofilaments
• Striated appearance
Disk – I bands: from Z disks to ends of
thick filaments
– A bands: length of thick filaments
– H zone: region in A band where
actin and myosin do not overlap
– M line: middle of H zone; delicate
filaments holding myosin in place
• In muscle fibers, A and I bands
of parallel myofibrils are
aligned.
• Titin filaments: elastic chains
of amino acids; make muscles
extensible and elastic

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 Sliding Filament Model
• Actin myofilaments sliding over myosin to
shorten sarcomeres
– Actin and myosin do not change length
– Shortening sarcomeres responsible for
skeletal muscle contraction
• During relaxation, sarcomeres lengthen because
of some external force, like contraction of
antagonistic muscles

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Sarcomere Shortening

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 Physiology of Skeletal Muscle

• Nervous system controls muscle contractions through action

potentials
• Resting membrane potentials
– Membrane voltage difference across membranes (polarized)
• Inside cell more negative due to accumulation of large protein
molecules. More K+ on inside than outside. K+ leaks out but not
completely because negative proteins hold some back.
• Outside cell more positive and more Na+ on outside than inside.
Na/K pump maintains this situation.
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– Must exist for action potential to occur
 Ion • Types
– Ligand-gated. Ligands are
Channels molecules that bind to receptors.
Receptor: protein or glycoprotein
with a receptor site
• Example: neurotransmitters
• Gate is closed until
neurotransmitter attaches to
receptor molecule. When Ach
attaches to receptor on muscle
cell, Na gate opens. Na moves
into cell due to concentration
gradient
– Voltage-gated
• Open and close in response to
small voltage changes across
plasma membrane
• Each is specific for one type of
ion
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 Action • Phases
– Depolarization: Inside of plasma
Potentials membrane becomes less negative. If
change reaches threshold, depolarization
occurs
– Repolarization: return of resting
membrane potential. Note that during
repolarization, the membrane potential
drops lower than its original resting
potential, then rebounds. This is because
Na plus K together are higher, but then
Na/K pump restores the resting potential
• All-or-none principle: like camera flash
system
• Propagate: Spread from one location to
another. Action potential does not move
along the membrane: new action potential at
each successive location.
• Frequency: number of action potential
produced per unit of time
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Gated Ion Channels and
the Action Potential

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Action Potential Propagation

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Neuromuscular Junction
• Synapse: axon terminal
resting in an
invagination of the
sarcolemma
• Neuromuscular
junction (NMJ):
– Presynaptic terminal:
axon terminal with
synaptic vesicles
– Synaptic cleft: space
– Postsynaptic
membrane or motor
end-plate

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Function of Neuromuscular
Junction
• Synaptic vesicles
– Neurotransmitter:
substance released from a
presynaptic membrane that
diffuses across the synaptic
cleft and stimulates (or
inhibits) the production of
an action potential in the
postsynaptic membrane.
Acetylcholine
– Acetylcholinesterase: A
degrading enzyme in
synaptic cleft. Prevents
accumulation of ACh

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Excitation-Contraction Coupling

• Mechanism where an action

potential causes muscle fiber
contraction
• Involves
– Sarcolemma
– Transverse (T) tubules:
invaginations of sarcolemma
– Terminal cisternae
– Sarcoplasmic reticulum: smooth ER
– Triad: T tubule, two adjacent
terminal cisternae
– Ca2+
– Troponin
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Action Potentials and Muscle
Contraction

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Cross-Bridge Movement

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 Relaxation
• Ca2+ moves back into sarcoplasmic
reticulum by active transport. Requires
energy
• Ca2+ moves away from troponin-
tropomyosin complex
• Complex re-establishes its position and
blocks binding sites.

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Muscle Twitch
• Muscle contraction in
response to a stimulus
that causes action
potential in one or
more muscle fibers
• Phases
– Lag or latent
– Contraction
– Relaxation

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Stimulus Strength and Muscle Contraction
• All-or-none law for muscle fibers
– Contraction of equal force in response to
each action potential
• Sub-threshold stimulus: no
action potential; no contraction
• Threshold stimulus: action
potential; contraction
• Stronger than threshold; action
potential; contraction equal to
that with threshold stimulus
• Motor units: a single motor neuron
and all muscle fibers innervated by it

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 Contraction of the Whole Muscle
• Strength of contraction is
graded: ranges from weak to
strong depending on stimulus
strength
• Multiple motor unit
summation: strength of
contraction depends upon
recruitment of motor units. A
muscle has many motor units
– Submaximal stimuli
– Maximal stimulus
– Supramaximal stimuli
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Multiple-Wave Summation
• As the frequency of action
potentials increase, the
frequency of contraction
increases
– Incomplete tetanus:
muscle fibers partially relax
between contraction
– Complete tetanus: no
relaxation between
contractions
– Multiple-wave
summation: muscle tension
increases as contraction
frequencies increase

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Treppe
• Graded response
• Occurs in muscle rested
for prolonged period
• Each subsequent
contraction is stronger
than previous until all
equal after few stimuli
• Possibly explanation:
more and more Ca2+
remains in sarcoplasm and
is not all taken up into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum
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 Types of Muscle Contractions
• Isometric: no change in length but tension
increases
– Postural muscles of body
• Isotonic: change in length but tension constant
– Concentric: overcomes opposing resistance and
muscle shortens
– Eccentric: tension maintained but muscle lengthens
• Muscle tone: constant tension by muscles for long
periods of time

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Muscle Length and Tension
• Active tension: force applied
to an object to be lifted when a
muscle contracts
• Stretched muscle- not enough
cross-bridging
• Crumpled muscle-
myofilaments crumpled, cross-
bridges can't contract
• Passive tension: tension
applied to load when a muscle
is stretched but not stimulated
• Total tension: active plus
passive
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 Fatigue
• Decreased capacity to work and reduced
efficiency of performance
• Types
– Psychological: depends on emotional state of
individual
– Muscular: results from ATP depletion
– Synaptic: occurs in NMJ due to lack of
acetylcholine

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 Physiological Contracture and
Rigor Mortis
• Physiological contracture: state of fatigue
where due to lack of ATP neither
contraction nor relaxation can occur
• Rigor mortis: development of rigid
muscles several hours after death. Ca 2+
leaks into sarcoplasm and attaches to
myosin heads and crossbridges form. Rigor
ends as tissues start to deteriorate.
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 Energy Sources
• ATP provides immediate energy for muscle
contractions. Produced from three sources
– Creatine phosphate
• During resting conditions stores energy to synthesize ATP
– Anaerobic respiration
• Occurs in absence of oxygen and results in breakdown of glucose
to yield ATP and lactic acid
– Aerobic respiration
• Requires oxygen and breaks down glucose to produce ATP,
carbon dioxide and water
• More efficient than anaerobic
• Oxygen debt: oxygen taken in by the body, above
that required for resting metabolism after exercise.
ATP produced from anaerobic sources contributes
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 Slow and Fast Fibers
• Slow-twitch or high-oxidative
– Contract more slowly, smaller in diameter, better blood supply, more
mitochondria, more fatigue-resistant than fast-twitch, large amount of
myoglobin.
– Postural muscles, more in lower than upper limbs. Dark meat of chicken.
• Fast-twitch or low-oxidative
– Respond rapidly to nervous stimulation, contain myosin that can break
down ATP more rapidly than that in Type I, less blood supply, fewer and
smaller mitochondria than slow-twitch
– Lower limbs in sprinter, upper limbs of most people. White meat in
chicken.
• Distribution of fast-twitch and slow-twitch
– Most muscles have both but varies for each muscle
• Effects of exercise: change in size of muscle fibers
– Hypertrophy: increase in muscle size
• Increase in myofibrils
• Increase in nuclei due to fusion of satellite cells
• Increase in strength due to better coordination of muscles, increase in
production of metabolic enzymes, better circulation, less restriction by fat
– Atrophy: decrease in muscle size
• Reverse except in severe situations where cells die
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 Heat production
• Exercise: metabolic rate and heat production
increase.
• Post-exercise: metabolic rate stays high due to
oxygen debt.
• Excess heat lost because of vasodilation and
sweating
• Shivering: uncoordinated contraction of muscle
fibers resulting in shaking and heat production

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 • Not striated, fibers smaller than those
Smooth in skeletal muscle
• Spindle-shaped; single, central
Muscle nucleus
• More actin than myosin
• Caveolae: indentations in
sarcolemma; may act like T tubules
• Dense bodies instead of Z disks as in
skeletal muscle; have noncontractile
intermediate filaments
• Ca2+ required to initiate contractions;
binds to calmodulin which regulates
myosin kinase. Cross-bridging
occurs
• Relaxation: caused by enzyme
myosin phosphatase
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 Types of Smooth Muscle

• Visceral or unitary: cells in sheets;

function as a unit
– Numerous gap junctions; waves of contraction
– Often autorhythmic
• Multiunit: cells or groups of cells act as
independent units
– Sheets (blood vessels); bundles (arrector pili
and iris); single cells (capsule of spleen)
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Electrical Properties of Smooth
Muscle
• Slow waves of depolarization
and repolarization transferred
from cell to cell
• Depolarization caused by
spontaneous diffusion of Na+
and Ca2+ into cell
• Does not follow all-or-none
law
• May have pacemaker cells
• Contraction regulated by
nervous system and by
hormones

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Functional Properties of Smooth
Muscle
• Some visceral muscle exhibits autorhythmic
contractions
• Tends to contract in response to sudden
stretch but not to slow increase in length
• Exhibits relatively constant tension: smooth
muscle tone
• Amplitude of contraction remains constant
although muscle length varies
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 Smooth Muscle Regulation

• Innervated by autonomic nervous system

• Neurotransmitters are acetylcholine and
norepinephrine
• Hormones important as epinephrine and
oxytocin
• Receptors present on plasma membrane
which neurotransmitters or hormones bind
determines response

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 Cardiac Muscle
• Found only in heart
• Striated
• Each cell usually has one nucleus
• Has intercalated disks and gap junctions
• Autorhythmic cells
• Action potentials of longer duration and longer
refractory period
• Ca2+ regulates contraction
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 Effects of Aging on Skeletal
Muscle
• Reduced muscle mass
• Increased time for muscle to contract in
response to nervous stimuli
• Reduced stamina
• Increased recovery time
• Loss of muscle fibers
• Decreased density of capillaries in muscle
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