MUSCULAR TISSUE

Chapter 10

Anatomy and Physiology Lecture

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 MUSCULAR TISSUE

*Bones and Joints form the framework of the body, but are not capable of
moving the body by themselves.

*Motion results from the contraction and relaxation of muscles.

Muscle tissue is highly specialized to actively generate force and

constitutes about 40 to 50 percent of total body weight.

Myology - the scientific study of muscles.

FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

1. Body Movement
2. Maintenance of Posture
3. Respiration
4. Production of Body Heat
5. Communication
6. Constriction of Organs and Vessels
7. Heart Beat

GENERAL FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLE

Muscle tissue is highly specialized to contract, or shorten, forcefully.

Energy is extracted from molecules by process of metabolism.

PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE:

Muscle tissue has four major functional characteristics:

1. Contractility - Is the ability of muscle tissue to actively generate

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 force to shorten and thicken to do work (contract) when a sufficient
stimulus is received. Ability to shorten with a force.

2. Excitability - Is the ability of muscle tissue to receive and respond to

stimuli. A stimulus is a change in the internal or external environment
strong enough to initiate an impulse (action potential). Also respond
to stimulation by nerve and hormones.

3. Extensibility - Is the ability of muscle tissue to be stretched (extend).

Many skeletal muscles are arranged in opposing pairs. While one is
contracting the other is relaxed and is undergoing extension. Biceps
brachii and triceps brachii.

4. Elasticity - Is the ability of muscle tissue to return to its original

shape after contraction or extension.

TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE:

(1) Skeletal, (2) Cardiac, and (3) Smooth.

Are catergorized by location, histology (microscopic structure), and nervous

and other modes of control.

a. Skeletal muscle tissue - Is named for its location, is attached

primarily to bones and moves parts of the skeleton.

Characteristics: Striations, many nuclei located around the periphery

of the fiber, unbranched fibers.

(Are also attached to skin, other muscles, or deep fascia.)

*Are striated - grooved, or furrowed on microscopic level.

*Are voluntarily - can contract and relax by conscious control

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b. Cardiac Muscle Tissue - Forms the back of the wall of the heart.

Characteristics: Striations, single nucleus, branched fibers with

intercalated discs.

*Are striated - grooved or furrowed on microscopic level.

*Are Involuntarily - contraction not under conscious control.

c. Smooth Muscle Tissue - Involved with processes related to

maintaining the internal environment.

Characteristics: No striations, single nucleus, and spindle-shaped

fibers.

-Located in the walls of hollow internal structures, such as blood

vessels, the stomach, and the intestines.

-Also found in the skin attached to hair follicles.

*Are nonstriated - lacks striation at the microscopic level.

*Are involuntary - have built-in controls (automaticity).

Comparison of Muscle Types:

1. Skeletal, striated, voluntary and involuntary (reflexes) muscle tissue;

2. Cardiac, striated, involuntary muscle tissue
3. Smooth, non-striated, involuntary muscle tissue.

SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE

Skeletal Muscles: Are composed of skeletal muscle fibers associated

with smaller amounts of connective tissues, blood vessels, and nerves.

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Myoblasts: Are less mature multinucleated cells from which muscle fibers
develop.

A. Nerve and Blood Vessels

-Motor neurons – Are specialized nerve cells. Neurons that stimulate

muscles to contract.

-Nerves convey impulses for muscular contraction.

-Blood provides nutrients and oxygen for contraction and eliminate

waste.

B. Connective Tissue

Surrounds and protects muscle tissue.

Fascia - Is connective tissue that covers the body by forming a sheet

of tissue under the skin; it also surrounds individual muscles or
groups of muscles. (Think of "Bandage")

External lamina and Sacrolemma – Surround each muscle fiber

Endomysium - A loose connective tissue that penetrates into the

interior of each fascicle and surrounds and separates the muscle
fibers.

Perimysium - A fibrous connective tissue that cover bundles of

muscle fibers (cells) called fasciculi or fascicles of 10 to 100 or more
individual muscle fibers.

Fasciculus – Each bundle of muscle ensheathed by perimysium. A

muscle consists of many fasciculi grouped together.

Epimysium - Wraps the entire muscle with a substantial quantity of

fibrous connective tissue.

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 Note: The connective tissue of muscle holds the muscle cells
together and attaches muscles to tendons and bones.

C. Muscle Fibers

*If a typical skeletal muscle is teased apart and viewed microscopically, it

consists of thousands of elongated cylindrical cells called muscle fibers or
myofibers.

Sarcoplasm – Is cytoplasm without the myofibril.

Myofibril – Is a threadlike, cylindrical structure that runs longitudinally

through the muscle fiber, that is, from one end of the muscle fiber to the
other.

-Consist of two kinds of protein filaments called Myofilaments.

(a) Actin Myofilaments (Thin Myofilament) - about 8 mm in diameter.

(b) Myosin Myofilaments (Thick Myofilament) - about 12 mm in diameter.

*Actin and Myosin Myofilaments are organized in highly ordered units

called sarcomeres.

Actin and Myosin Myofilaments

Actin Myofilament

Each Actin Myofilament is composed of:

(1) Two strands of fibrous actin (F actin),

(2) Series tropomyosin molecules, and
(3) Series of troponin.

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Myosin Myofilament

Composed of many elongated myosin molecules shaped like golf club.

Each Myosin molecule consists of:

(1) Two heavy myosin molecules wound together to form a rod

portion lying parallel to the myosin myofilament,
(2) Two heads that extend laterally.

Properties of the Myosin Head:

1. The heads can bind to active sites on the actin molecules to form
cross-bridges.
2. The heads are attached to the rod portion by a hinge region that
can bend and straighten during contraction.
3. The heads have ATPase activity, the enzyme activity that breaks
down adenosin triphospahate (ATP), releasing energy.

Sarcomeres
Are separated from one another by narrow zones of dense materials called
Z disks.

Z Disk – Is a filamentous network of protein forming a disklike structure for

the attachment of actin myofilaments.
I (Isotropic) Band - A light-colored, less dense area; composed of Actin
myofilaments only.

A (Anisotropic) Band - A dark, dense area; represents the length of

Myosin myofilaments.

Sides of the A band are darkened by the overlapping of Actin and Myosin
myofilaments.

Combination of alternating dark A Bands and light I Bands gives the muscle
fiber its striated (striped) appearance. Bands are called cross-striation.

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H Zone - A narrow region in the center of the A Band that contains Myosin
myofilaments only.

M Line - In the center of the H zone; a series of fine threads that appear to
connect the middle parts of adjacent Myosin myofilaments.

Z disk - Passes through the center of each I band.

Sliding Filament Model

Sliding Filament Model - A muscle contraction associated with the

movement of myofilaments.

During muscle contraction, myosin cross bridges pull on Myosin

myofilaments, causing them to slide inward toward the H zone.

Sarcomere shortens, but the length of the Actin and Myosin myofilaments
do not change.

Myosin cross bridges of the Myosin myofilaments connect with portions of

Actin of the Actin myofilaments.

The myosin cross bridges move like the oars of a boat on the surface of the
Actin myofilaments.

The Actin and Myosin myofilaments slide past each other as the cross
bridges pull on, that is apply force to the Myosin myofilaments.

Sliding of Actin and Myosin myofilaments past each other explains while
their lengths do not change through sarcomere shortens.

As the Actin myofilaments move past the Myosin myofilaments, the H zone
narrows and even disappears when the thin myofilaments meet at the
center of the sarcomere.

Note: The sliding of myofilaments and shortening of sarcomeres causes the

shortening of the muscle fibers.

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Physiology of Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Axons of nerve cells extend from the brain and spinal cord to skeletal
muscle fibers.
Action Potentials – Is a signal transmitted along the axons to muscle
fibers, by which the nervous system controls the contraction of skeletal
muscles.

Membrane Potentials
Plasma membranes are Polarized.

Polarized – Is a voltage difference, or electrical charge difference, across

the membrane before action potential can be generated.

Resting Membrane Potential – Is the charge difference across the

membrane. Can be measured in units called millivolts (mV; mV = 1/1000
Volt).

Note: Internal surface of plasma membrane, at resting membrane

potential is negatively charged.

Note: The potential difference across the plasma membrane of nerve

cells and muscle fibers are between –70 to –90 mV.

Ion Channels
Action potential can be produced once resting membrane potential is
established.

Note: An action potential is a reversal of the resting membrane

potential such that the inside of the plasma membrane becomes
positively charged compared to the outside.

Ions diffusion through the Ion channels into the plasma membrane,
changes the charge and produce action potential

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Two Types of Gated Ion Channels:

1. Ligand-gated Ion Channels

2. Voltage-gated Ion Channels

Action Potentials

Two Phases of Action Potential;

1. Depolarization
2. Repolarization

Depolarization – Occurs when the inside of the plasma membrane

becomes less negative.

Repolarization – Is the return of the membrane potential to its resting

value.

Depolarization and Repolarization result from the opening and closing of

gated ion channels.

Action potentials occur according to the all-or-none principle

Action Potential Frequency – Is the number of action potentials produced

per unit of time.

Neuromuscular Junction
Neurons and Muscle fibers make contact and communicate at specialized
regions called Synapses or Neuromuscular junctions.

Cells do not physically touch - (the action potential cannot "jump the gap"
to excite the next cell, therefore,

Neurotransmitter: A chemical released by cells to communicate with

another cell.

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Acetylcholine (Ach) - A neurotransmitter present in motor neuron synaptic
vesicles and released at the Neuromuscular Junction.

-A stimulus must be applied for a skeletal muscle fiber to contract.

-The stimulus is delivered by a nerve cell or neuron.

Neuron has a threadlike process called a fiber, or axon, that may run 91 cm
(3ft) or more to a muscle.

Motor neuron - a neuron that stimulates muscle tissue.

-On entering a skeletal muscle, the axon of a motor neuron branches into
axon terminals (telodendria).

-The distal end of axon terminals (telodendria) are expanded into bulblike
structure called synaptic end bulbs.

Excitation-Contraction Coupling

Excitation-Concentration Coupling – Is the mechanism by which an

action potential causes contraction of a muscle fiber.

Cross-Bridge Movement

A cycle of events resulting in contraction proceeds very rapidly when the

heads of the myosin molecules bind to actin.

The energy from one ATP molecule is required for each cycle of cross-
bridge formation, movement, and release.

After a cross-bridge has formed and movement has occurred, release of

the myosin head from actin requires ATP to bind to the head of the myosin
molecule.

Power Stroke – Is the movement of myosin molecule while the cross-

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bridge is attached.

Recovery Stroke – Is the return of the myosin head to its original position
after cross-bridge.

Muscle Relaxation

Two changes permit a muscle fiber to relax after it has contracted.

(1) Acetylcholine is rapidly broken down by an enzyme called

Acetylcholinesterase (AchE) "A neurotransmitter"

(Stops generation of Muscle action potentials, and Ca release

channels in Sacroplasmic Reticulum close).

(2) Ca2+ Active Transport Pumps rapidly remove Ca2+ from the
Sacroplasm into the Sacroplasmic Reticulum.

Physiology of Skeletal Muscle

Muscle Twitch

Muscle Twitch - Is the contraction of a muscle in response to a stimulus

that causes an action potential in one or more muscle fibers.

Myogram is the record of a muscle contraction.

Latent Period - A brief period between application of stimulus and the

beginning of contraction. (Lasts about 2 milliseconds)

(During this time, it is believed that Ca2+ ions are released from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum and the onset of myosin cross bridge activity
occurs).

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Contraction Period - Is indicated by the upward tracing that is caused by
the cross bridge activity that brings about concentration. (Last about 10-
100 millisec)

Relaxation - Is indicated by the downward tracing.

(Caused by the active transport of Ca2+ ions back into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum which results in relaxation. Last about 10-100 millisec)

Stimulus Strength and Muscle Contraction

An isolated skeletal muscle fiber produces contraction of equal force in

response to each potential, called all-or-none law of skeletal muscle
contraction.

Following events occur when brief electric stimuli of increasing strength are
applied to the muscle fiber sacolemma:

1. A Sub-threshold stimulus does not produce an action potential,

and no muscle contraction occurs;
2. A Threshold stimulus produces an action potential and results in
contraction of the muscle cells; or
3. A Stronger-than-threshold stimulus produces an action potential
of the same magnitude as the threshold stimulus and therefore
produces an identical contraction.

Stimulus Frequency and Muscle Contraction

An action potential in a single muscle fiber causes it to contract.

Incomplete Tetanus – When muscle fibers are partially relaxed between

the contractions.

Complete Tetanus – When action potential are produced so rapidly in

muscle fibers that no muscle relaxation occurs between them.

Multiple-wave summation – Increased tension produced by a muscle

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increase as the frequency of contraction increases.

Treppe : Occurs in muscle that has rested for a prolonged period.

Is the condition in which a skeletal muscle contracts more forcefully in

response to the same strength of stimuli after it contracted several
times.

Types Of Muscle Contractions

Isometric Contraction

The length of the muscle doesn’t change, but the amount of tension
increases during the contraction process.

Occurs when the muscle does not or cannot shorten, but the tension on the
muscle increases greatly.

Do not result in body movement.

Example: Responsible for the postural muscle of the body such as muscle
that hold the spine erect while a person is sitting or standing.

Isotonic Contraction

The amount of tension produced by the muscle is constant during

contraction, but the length of the muscle changes.

Example: Movements of the arms or fingers. Waving or using a computer

keyboard.

Concentric contraction

Are isotonic contraction in which tension in the muscle is great enough to

overcome the opposing resistance, and the muscle shortens.

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Ecentric contraction

Are isotonic contractions in which tension is maintained in a muscle, but the

opposing resistance is great enough to cause the muscle increase in
length.

Muscle Tone

Refers to the constant tension produced by muscles of the body for long
periods of time.

Muscle tone is responsible for keeping the back and legs straight, the head
upright, and the abdomen flat.

Length versus Tension

Active tension – Is the force applied to an object to be lifted when a
muscle contracts.

Passive tension – Is the tension applied to the load when a muscle is

stretched but not stimulated.

Total tension – Is the sum of active and passive tension.

Fatigue

Fatigue – Is the decreased capacity to do work and the reduced efficiency

of performance that normally follows a period activity.

Three possible sites that fatigue can develop are: (1) the nervous system,
(2) the muscle system, and (3) the neuromuscular junction.

Psychologic fatigue – The muscles are capable of functioning, but the

individual “perceives” that additional muscular work is not possible.

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It is the most common type of fatigue, and it involves the central nervous
system.

Muscular fatigue – Results from ATP depletion.

It is the second most common type of fatigue, it occurs in the muscle fiber.

Synaptic fatigue – A fatigue due to depletion neurotransmitter vesicle in

the presynaptic terminals.

It is the least common type of fatigue, it occurs in the neuromuscular

junction.

Physiologic Contracture and Rigor Mortis

Physiologic contracture – A condition in which muscle become incapable
of either contracting or relaxing as a result of extreme muscle fatigue.
It is caused by lack of ATP within the muscle fiber.

Rigors mortis – Is the development of rigid muscles several hours after

death and is similar to physiologic contracture.

Energy Sources
Contraction of muscle require energy.

ATP provides the immediate source of energy for muscle contration.

ATP must be synthesized continuously to sustain muscle contractions, and

ATP synthesis must be equal to ATP breakdown because only small
amounts of ATP are stored in the muscle fibers.
Three sources of energy required to produce ATP:

1. Creatine phosphate
2. Anaerobic respiration
3. Aerobic respiration

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Creatine Phosphate

Creatine phosphate – Is synthesized by the use of energy from aerobic

respiration during resting conditions.

Creatine phosphate accumulates in muscle cells and function to store

energy, which can be used to synthesize ATP.

As ATP levels begin to fall, ADP reacts with creatine phosphate to produce
ATP and creatine.

ADP + Creatine phosphate = Creatine + ATP

Anaerobic Respiration

Anaerobic respiration – Occurs in the absence of oxygen and results in

the breakdown of glucose to yield ATP and lactic acid.

For each molecule of glucose metabolized, a net production of two ATP

molecules and two molecules of lactic acid occurs.

Anaerobic respiration is less efficient than aerobic respiration, but it’s

faster, especially when oxygen availability limits aerobic respiration.

Example: During an intense exercise.

Aerobic Respiration

Aerobic respiration – Requires oxygen and breaks down glucose to

produce ATP, carbon dioxide, and water.

Aerobic respiration can produce up to 38 ATP molecules for each glucose

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molecule.

Although aerobic metabolism produces many more ATP molecules for

each glucose molecule metabolized than does anaerobic metabolism, the
rate at which the ATP molecules are produced is slower.

*Aerobic system will provide enough ATP for prolonged activity so long as
sufficient oxygen and nutrients are available.

Oxygen Debt

*During muscular exercise, blood vessels dilate, blood flow increases, and
oxygen delivery increases).

*After exercise has stopped, heavy breathing continues for a period of time,
and oxygen consumption is above the resting level.

Proposed that the extra oxygen was all used to "Payback" or restore
metabolic conditions to the resting level.

To convert lactic acid back into pyruvic acid;

To reestablish the glycogen stores;
To resynthesize creatine phosphate and ATP
To replace the oxygen removed from myoglobin

TYPES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBERS

Are different in structure and function.

-Skeletal muscles fibers vary in color depending on their content of

myoglobin, a reddish pigment similar to hemoglobin in blood.

Myoglobin stores oxygen until need by mitochondria, the organelles in

which ATP generation occurs.

Red muscle fibers are skeletal muscle fibers that have high myoglobin
content.

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White Muscle fibers are skeletal muscle fibers that have a low content of
myoglobin.

Slow and Fast Fibers

Not all skeletal muscles have identical functional capabilities. They differ in
several respects including having muscle fibers that contain slightly
different forms of myosin.

Slow-Twitch, or High-Oxidative, Muscle Fibers

Slow-Twitch, High-Oxidative, or Type I Muscle Fibers – Contracts more

slowly

Contain large amounts of myoglobin; many mitochondria; and many blood

capillaries; and have high capacity to generate ATP by oxidative metabolic
processes.

Are very resistant to fatigue.

Found - in the postural muscle of the neck.

Fast-Twitch, or Low-Oxidative, Muscle Fibers

Fast-Twitch, Low-Oxidative, or Type II Muscle Fibers – Respond rapidly

to nervous stimulation and contain myosin molecules that break down ATP
more rapidly than do slow-twitch muscle fibers.

Contain very large amounts of myoglobin;

Very many mitochondria;

Very many blood capillaries

Have a very high capacity for generating ATP by oxidative metabolic

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process

Contraction velocity is fast, split ATP at fast rate also;

Resistant to fatigue but not quite as much as type I fibers.

Found not frequent in human. Sprinters tend to have large proportion of

fast oxidative fiber in their leg muscles.

Most skeletal muscles of the body are a mixture of all three types of
skeletal muscle fibers, but their proportion varies depending on the usual
action of the muscle.

Low-Oxidative or Type IIx

Have low content of myoglobin;

Few mitochondria

Few blood capillaries

Contain large amount of glycogen

Generate ATP by anaerobic metabolic process

Fatigue easily, but split ATP at a fast rate so that contraction velocity is
fast.

Found - muscles of the arms.

Heat Production

Both Smooth and Skeletal muscles play important roles in maintaining the
body's thermal homeostasis.

Smooth muscle - regulate blood vessel diameter.

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-When smooth muscle in the walls of skin arterioles relaxes, the arterioles
dilate, and more blood flows to the skin;

-Permits greater transfer of heat from the warm blood through the skin to
the environment.

*On the other hand, when heat conservation is needed, smooth muscle in
the skin blood vessels contracts - less blood flows through skin and less
heat.

Skeletal muscle - only a small amount of the energy stored in the body
chemicals is used for mechanical work (movement) during contraction.

-About 85% is released as heat (thermogenesis), some of which is used to

help maintain a normal body temperature.

*- Excess heat is eliminated through the skin and lungs.

*If body temperature (controlled condition) decreases, one results is

shivering, which is involuntary thermogenesis.

SMOOTH MUSCLE

1. Is nonstriated and involuntary.

2. Smooth muscle fibers contain intermediate filaments, dense bodies

(function as Z lines), and Caveolae (function as transverse tubules).

3. Visceral (single-unit) smooth muscle is found in the walls of viscera

(plural of viscus).

(Viscera (viscus) - any large interior organ in any of the three great body
cavities, eg. the abdomen)

-The fibers are arranged in a network.

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4. Multi-unit smooth muscle is found in blood vessels and the eye.

-The fibers operate singly rather than as a unit.

5. The duration of contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle is longer

than in skeletal muscle.

6. Smooth muscle fibers contract in response to nerve impulses,

hormones, and local factors.

7. Smooth muscle fibers can stretch considerably without developing

tension.

CARDIAC MUSCLE

1. Found only in the heart. (Principal tissue in the heart wall.)

2. Is striated and involuntary.

3. The fibers are quadrangular and usually contain a single centrally

placed nucleus.

4. Compared to skeletal muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue has more

sarcoplasm, more mitochondria, less well-developed sarcoplasmic
reticulum, and large transverse tubules located at Z line rather than at A-I
band junctions.

Myofilaments are not arranged in discrete myofibrils.

5. The fibers branch freely and are connected via gap junction.

6. Intercalated Discs provide strength and aid in conduction of muscle

action potentials by way of gap junctions located in the discs.

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Each fiber in a network is connected to its neighbors by irregular transverse
thickening of the sarcolemma Intercalated discs.

7. Unlike skeletal muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue contracts and

relaxes rapidly, continuously, and rhythmically.

Energy is supplied by glycogen and fat in large, numerous mitochondria.

8. Cardiac muscle can contract without extrinsic stimulation and can

remain contracted longer than skeletal muscle tissue.

9. Cardiac muscle tissue has a long refractory period, which prevents

tetanus (strong second contraction due to second stimulus applied after the
refractory period).

Regulation of Muscle Tissue

1. Skeletal muscle fibers cannot divide and have limited powers of

regeneration.

*(After the first year of life, all growth of skeletal muscle is due to
enlargement of existing cells (Hypertrophy), rather than increase in the
number of fibers (hyperplasia).)

Satellite cells - produce new fiber cells that can replace skeletal muscle
fibers on an individual basis.

2. Cardiac Muscle fibers - have no capacity for division and increase in

size by hypertrophy (enlargement of existing cells).

-Do not associate with satellite cells.

-Healing of cardiac muscle tissue is by scar formation.
-Cardiac muscle tissue has no powers of regeneration.

3. Smooth muscle tissue - have limited capacity for division and

regeneration.

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-Like cardiac muscle and skeletal, can undergo hypertrophy.

*Uterus retains their capacity for division and thus can grow by hyperplasia
(increase in number of fibers).

Pericytes cells from which new smooth muscle fibers can arise.

AGING AND MUSCLE TISSUE

1. Beginning at about 25 years of age, there is a progressive loss of

skeletal muscle, which is replaced by fat.

2. There is also a decrease in muscle strength and diminished muscle

reflexes.

DISORDERS: HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES

1. Fibrosis - formation of fibrous (containing fibers) connective tissue in

locations where it normally does not exist.

2. Fibromyalgia ( algia = painful condition) refers to a group of common

nonarticular rheumatic disorders characterized by pain, tenderness, and
stiffness of muscles, tendons, and surrounding soft tissues.

-Frequent sites are the lower back (lumbago) and thigh (charley horse).

3. Muscular Dystrophies - refers to hereditary diseases of muscle

characterized by degeneration of individual muscle fibers.

4. Myasthenia Gravis (MG) - is a disease characterized by great muscular

weakness and fatigability resulting from improper neuromuscular
transmission.

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5. Abnormal Contractions

a) Spasm - a sudden involuntary contraction of large groups of

muscles. (Cerebral Palsy is characterized by generalized spastic
contractions.)

b) Tremor - is a rhythmic, involuntary, purposeless contraction of

opposing muscle groups. (A resting tremor occurs in Parkinsons
disease.)

c) Fasciculation - is an involuntary, brief twitch of muscle visible under

the skin. (may be seen in multiple sclerosis or amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis, also called Lou Gehrig's disease).

d) Fibrillation - is similar to a fasciculation except that it is not visible

under the skin.

-It is recorded by electromyography.

e) Tic - is a spasmodic twitching made involuntary by muscles that

are ordinarily under voluntary control.

-Twitching of the eyelid and face muscles.

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