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LEARNING MODULE INFORMATION

I. Course Code SEM 301c
II. Course Title Anatomy and Physiology
III. Module Number 2
IV. Module Title Organ Systems (Part1)
V. Overview of the Module This module is intended for the discussion of the following
organ systems:
a. Skeletal System
b. Muscular System
c. Integumentary System
d. Digestive System
e. Respiratory System
f. Excretory System
VI. Module Outcomes As for the outcome of the module, you are expected to
understand and comprehend the anatomy and physiology of
Lesson 1: Skeletal System, Lesson 2: Muscular System and
Lesson 3: Integumentary System, Lesson 4: Digestive System,
Lesson 5: Respiratory System, Lesson 6: Excretory System
VII. General Instructions You must allot the necessary time to complete the lessons. If
you choose not to complete the lesson using the schedule
provided, you must understand that it is your full responsibility
to complete them by the last day of completion. Time is of the
essence.
The module is designed to assess student understanding of the
assigned lessons found within the associated content of the
midterm and final period of the course.
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Lesson1: Skeletal System

Humans are vertebrates, animals having a vertebral column or backbone. They rely on a
sturdy internal frame that is centered on a prominent spine. The human skeletal system
consists of bones, cartilage, ligaments and tendons and accounts for about 20 percent of
the body weight.

Lesson Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

• List and describe the functions of bones;

• Describe the classes of bones; and
• Discuss the process of bone formation and development.
•
Discussion:

Bone, or osseous tissue, is a hard, dense connective tissue that forms most of the adult
skeleton, the support structure of the body. In the areas of the skeleton where bones move
(for example, the ribcage and joints), cartilage, a semi-rigid form of connective tissue,
provides flexibility and smooth surfaces for movement. The skeletal system is the body system
composed of bones and cartilage and performs the following critical functions for the
human body:

 supports the body

 facilitates movement
 protects internal organs
 produces blood cells
 stores and releases minerals and fat

Support, Movement, and Protection

The most apparent functions of the skeletal system are the gross functions—those visible by
observation. Simply by looking at a person, you can see how the bones support, facilitate
movement, and protect the human body.
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Figure 2. Bones Protect Brain. The cranium completely surrounds and protects the brain from non-traumatic injury.

Just as the steel beams of a building provide a scaffold to support its weight, the bones and
cartilage of your skeletal system compose the scaffold that supports the rest of your body.
Without the skeletal system, you would be a limp mass of organs, muscle, and skin.

Bones also facilitate movement by serving as points of attachment for your muscles. While
some bones only serve as a support for the muscles, others also transmit the forces produced
when your muscles contract. From a mechanical point of view, bones act as levers and
joints serve as fulcrums.

Unless a muscle spans a joint and contracts, a bone is not going to move. For information on
the interaction of the skeletal and muscular systems, that is, the musculoskeletal system, seek
additional content.

Bones also protect internal organs from injury by covering or surrounding them. For example,
your ribs protect your lungs and heart, the bones of your vertebral column (spine) protect
your spinal cord, and the bones of your cranium (skull) protect your brain (Figure 2).
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Mineral Storage, Energy Storage, and Hematopoiesis

Figure 4. Head of Femur Showing Red and Yellow Marrow. The head of the femur contains both yellow and red marrow.
Yellow marrow stores fat. Red marrow is responsible for hematopoiesis. (credit: modification of work by
“stevenfruitsmaak”/Wikimedia Commons)

On a metabolic level, bone tissue performs several critical functions. For one, the bone
matrix acts as a reservoir for a number of minerals important to the functioning of the body,
especially calcium, and potassium. These minerals, incorporated into bone tissue, can be
released back into the bloodstream to maintain levels needed to support physiological
processes. Calcium ions, for example, are essential for muscle contractions and controlling
the flow of other ions involved in the transmission of nerve impulses.

Bone also serves as a site for fat storage and blood cell production. The softer connective
tissue that fills the interior of most bone is referred to as bone marrow (Figure 4). There are two
types of bone marrow: yellow marrow and red marrow. Yellow marrow contains adipose
tissue; the triglycerides stored in the adipocytes of the tissue can serve as a source of
energy. Red marrow is where hematopoiesis—the production of blood cells—takes place.
Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are all produced in the red marrow.

The 206 bones that compose the adult skeleton are divided into five categories based on
their shapes. Their shapes and their functions are related such that each categorical shape
of bone has a distinct function.
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Figure 1. Classifications of Bones. Bones are classified according to their shape.

Long Bones

A long bone is one that is cylindrical in shape, being longer than it is wide. Keep in mind,
however, that the term describes the shape of a bone, not its size. Long bones are found in
the arms (humerus, ulna, radius) and legs (femur, tibia, fibula), as well as in the fingers
(metacarpals, phalanges) and toes (metatarsals, phalanges). Long bones function as levers;
they move when muscles contract.

Short Bones

A short bone is one that is cube-like in shape, being approximately equal in length, width,
and thickness. The only short bones in the human skeleton are in the carpals of the wrists and
the tarsals of the ankles. Short bones provide stability and support as well as some limited
motion.

Flat Bones

The term flat bone is somewhat of a misnomer because, although a flat bone is typically thin,
it is also often curved. Examples include the cranial (skull) bones, the scapulae (shoulder
blades), the sternum (breastbone), and the ribs. Flat bones serve as points of attachment for
muscles and often protect internal organs.
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Irregular Bones

An irregular bone is one that does not have any easily characterized shape and therefore
does not fit any other classification. These bones tend to have more complex shapes, like the
vertebrae that support the spinal cord and protect it from compressive forces. Many facial
bones, particularly the ones containing sinuses, are classified as irregular bones.

Sesamoid Bones

A sesamoid bone is a small, round bone that, as the name suggests, is shaped like a sesame
seed. These bones form in tendons (the sheaths of tissue that connect bones to muscles)
where a great deal of pressure is generated in a joint. The sesamoid bones protect tendons
by helping them overcome compressive forces. Sesamoid bones vary in number and
placement from person to person but are typically found in tendons associated with the
feet, hands, and knees. The patellae (singular = patella) are the only sesamoid bones found
in common with every person. Table 1 reviews bone classifications with their associated
features, functions, and examples.

Table 1. Bone Classifications

Bone
Features Function(s)
classification

Long Cylinder-like shape, longer than it is wide Leverage

Provide stability,
Cube-like shape, approximately equal in
Short support, while allowing
length, width, and thickness
for some motion

Points of attachment for

Flat Thin and curved muscles; protectors of
internal organs
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Table 1. Bone Classifications

Bone
Features Function(s)
classification

Irregular Complex shape Protect internal organs

Protect tendons from

Sesamoid Small and round; embedded in tendons
compressive forces

Structure of Bone Tissue

There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. The names imply that the two
types differ in density, or how tightly the tissue is packed together. There are three types of
cells that contribute to bone homeostasis. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cell, osteoclasts
resorb or break down bone, and osteocytes are mature bone cells. An equilibrium between
osteoblasts and osteoclasts maintains bone tissue.

Compact Bone
Compact bone consists of closely packed osteons or haversian systems. The osteon consists
of a central canal called the osteonic (haversian) canal, which is surrounded by concentric
rings (lamellae) of matrix. Between the rings of matrix, the bone cells (osteocytes) are
located in spaces called lacunae. Small channels (canaliculi) radiate from the lacunae to
the osteonic (haversian) canal to provide passageways through the hard matrix. In compact
bone, the haversian systems are packed tightly together to form what appears to be a
solid mass. The osteonic canals contain blood vessels that are parallel to the long axis of the
bone. These blood vessels interconnect, by way of perforating canals, with vessels on the
surface of the bone.
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Spongy (Cancellous) Bone

Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less dense than compact bone. Spongy bone
consists of plates (trabeculae) and bars of bone adjacent to small, irregular cavities that
contain red bone marrow. The canaliculi connect to the adjacent cavities, instead of a
central haversian canal, to receive their blood supply. It may appear that the trabeculae
are arranged in a haphazard manner, but they are organized to provide maximum strength
similar to braces that are used to support a building. The trabeculae of spongy bone follow
the lines of stress and can realign if the direction of stress changes.

Bone tissue (osseous tissue) differs greatly from other tissues in the body. Bone is hard and
many of its functions depend on that characteristic hardness. Later discussions in this chapter
will show that bone is also dynamic in that its shape adjusts to accommodate stresses. This
section will examine the gross anatomy of bone first and then move on to its histology.
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Gross Anatomy of Bone

Figure 1. Anatomy of a Long Bone. A typical long bone shows the gross anatomical characteristics of bone.

The structure of a long bone allows for the best visualization of all of the parts of a bone
(Figure 1). A long bone has two parts: the diaphysis and the epiphysis. The diaphysis is the
tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The hollow region
in the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity, which is filled with yellow marrow. The walls of
the diaphysis are composed of dense and hard compact bone.

The wider section at each end of the bone is called the epiphysis (plural = epiphyses), which
is filled with spongy bone. Red marrow fills the spaces in the spongy bone. Each epiphysis
meets the diaphysis at the metaphysis, the narrow area that contains the epiphyseal
plate (growth plate), a layer of hyaline (transparent) cartilage in a growing bone. When the
bone stops growing in early adulthood (approximately 18–21 years), the cartilage is replaced
by osseous tissue and the epiphyseal plate becomes an epiphyseal line.

The medullary cavity has a delicate membranous lining called the endosteum (end– =
“inside”; oste– = “bone”), where bone growth, repair, and remodeling occur. The outer
surface of the bone is covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum (peri–
= “around” or “surrounding”). The periosteum contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic
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vessels that nourish compact bone. Tendons and ligaments also attach to bones at the
periosteum. The periosteum covers the entire outer surface except where the epiphyses
meet other bones to form joints (Figure 2). In this region, the epiphyses are covered
with articular cartilage, a thin layer of cartilage that reduces friction and acts as a shock
absorber.

Figure 2. Periosteum and Endosteum. The periosteum forms the outer surface of bone, and the endosteum lines the
medullary cavity.

Flat bones, like those of the cranium, consist of a layer of diploë (spongy bone), lined on
either side by a layer of compact bone (Figure 3). The two layers of compact bone and the
interior spongy bone work together to protect the internal organs. If the outer layer of a
cranial bone fractures, the brain is still protected by the intact inner layer.

Figure 3. Anatomy of a Flat Bone. This cross-section of a flat bone shows the spongy bone (diploë) lined on either side by a
layer of compact bone.

Bone Markings

The surface features of bones vary considerably, depending on the function and location in
the body. Table 1 describes the bone markings, which are illustrated in (Figure 4). There are
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three general classes of bone markings: (1) articulations, (2) projections, and (3) holes. As the
name implies, an articulation is where two bone surfaces come together (articulus = “joint”).
These surfaces tend to conform to one another, such as one being rounded and the other
cupped, to facilitate the function of the articulation. A projection is an area of a bone that
projects above the surface of the bone. These are the attachment points for tendons and
ligaments. In general, their size and shape is an indication of the forces exerted through the
attachment to the bone. A hole is an opening or groove in the bone that allows blood
vessels and nerves to enter the bone. As with the other markings, their size and shape reflect
the size of the vessels and nerves that penetrate the bone at these points.

Table 1. Bone Markings

Marking Description Example

Articulations Where two bones meet Knee joint

Prominent rounded
Head Head of femur
surface

Facet Flat surface Vertebrae

Condyle Rounded surface Occipital condyles

Projections Raised markings Spinous process of the vertebrae

Protuberance Protruding Chin

Process Prominence feature Transverse process of vertebra

Spine Sharp process Ischial spine

Tubercle Small, rounded process Tubercle of humerus

Tuberosity Rough surface Deltoid tuberosity

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Table 1. Bone Markings

Marking Description Example

Line Slight, elongated ridge Temporal lines of the parietal bones

Crest Ridge Iliac crest

Foramen (holes through which blood vessels can pass

Holes Holes and depressions
through)

Fossa Elongated basin Mandibular fossa

Fovea Small pit Fovea capitis on the head of the femur

Sulcus Groove Sigmoid sulcus of the temporal bones

Canal Passage in bone Auditory canal

Fissure Slit through bone Auricular fissure

Foramen Hole through bone Foramen magnum in the occipital bone

Meatus Opening into canal External auditory meatus

Sinus Air-filled space in bone Nasal sinus

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Figure 4. Bone Features. The surface features of bones depend on their function, location, attachment of ligaments and
tendons, or the penetration of blood vessels and nerves.

Bone Cells and Tissue

Bone contains a relatively small number of cells entrenched in a matrix of collagen fibers that
provide a surface for inorganic salt crystals to adhere. These salt crystals form when calcium
phosphate and calcium carbonate combine to create hydroxyapatite, which incorporates
other inorganic salts like magnesium hydroxide, fluoride, and sulfate as it crystallizes, or
calcifies, on the collagen fibers. The hydroxyapatite crystals give bones their hardness and
strength, while the collagen fibers give them flexibility so that they are not brittle.
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Figure 5. Bone Cells. Four types of cells are found within bone tissue. Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated and develop into osteoblasts.
When osteoblasts get trapped within the calcified matrix, their structure and function changes, and they become osteocytes. O steoclasts
develop from monocytes and macrophages and differ in appearance from other bone cells.

Although bone cells compose a small amount of the bone volume, they are crucial to the
function of bones. Four types of cells are found within bone tissue: osteoblasts, osteocytes,
osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts (Figure 5).

The osteoblast. is the bone cell responsible for forming new bone and is found in the growing
portions of bone, including the periosteum and endosteum. Osteoblasts, which do not
divide, synthesize and secrete the collagen matrix and calcium salts. As the secreted matrix
surrounding the osteoblast calcifies, the osteoblast become trapped within it; as a result, it
changes in structure and becomes an osteocyte, the primary cell of mature bone and the
most common type of bone cell. Each osteocyte is located in a space called a lacuna and
is surrounded by bone tissue. Osteocytes maintain the mineral concentration of the matrix
via the secretion of enzymes. Like osteoblasts, osteocytes lack mitotic activity. They can
communicate with each other and receive nutrients via long cytoplasmic processes that
extend through canaliculi (singular = canaliculus), channels within the bone matrix.

If osteoblasts and osteocytes are incapable of mitosis, then how are they replenished when
old ones die? The answer lies in the properties of a third category of bone cells—
the osteogenic cell. These osteogenic cells are undifferentiated with high mitotic activity
and they are the only bone cells that divide. Immature osteogenic cells are found in the
deep layers of the periosteum and the marrow. They differentiate and develop into
osteoblasts.

The dynamic nature of bone means that new tissue is constantly formed, and old, injured, or
unnecessary bone is dissolved for repair or for calcium release. The cell responsible for bone
resorption, or breakdown, is the osteoclast. They are found on bone surfaces, are
multinucleated, and originate from monocytes and macrophages, two types of white blood
cells, not from osteogenic cells. Osteoclasts are continually breaking down old bone while
osteoblasts are continually forming new bone. The ongoing balance between osteoblasts
and osteoclasts is responsible for the constant but subtle reshaping of bone. Table 2 reviews
the bone cells, their functions, and locations.
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Table 2. Bone Cells

Cell type Function Location

Osteogenic Deep layers of the periosteum and the

Develop into osteoblasts
cells marrow

Growing portions of bone, including

Osteoblasts Bone formation
periosteum and endosteum

Maintain mineral
Osteocytes Entrapped in matrix
concentration of matrix

Bone surfaces and at sites of old, injured,

Osteoclasts Bone resorption
or unneeded bone

Compact and Spongy Bone

The differences between compact and spongy bone are best explored via their histology.
Most bones contain compact and spongy osseous tissue, but their distribution and
concentration vary based on the bone’s overall function. Compact bone is dense so that it
can withstand compressive forces, while spongy (cancellous) bone has open spaces and
supports shifts in weight distribution.

Compact Bone

Compact bone is the denser, stronger of the two types of bone tissue (Figure 6). It can be
found under the periosteum and in the diaphyses of long bones, where it provides support
and protection.

Bone tissue (osseous tissue) differs greatly from other tissues in the body. Bone is hard and
many of its functions depend on that characteristic hardness. Later discussions in this chapter
will show that bone is also dynamic in that its shape adjusts to accommodate stresses. This
section will examine the gross anatomy of bone first and then move on to its histology.
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Blood and Nerve Supply

The spongy bone and medullary cavity receive nourishment from arteries that pass through
the compact bone. The arteries enter through the nutrient foramen (plural = foramina), small
openings in the diaphysis (Figure 9). The osteocytes in spongy bone are nourished by blood
vessels of the periosteum that penetrate spongy bone and blood that circulates in the
marrow cavities. As the blood passes through the marrow cavities, it is collected by veins,
which then pass out of the bone through the foramina.

Figure 9. Diagram of Blood and Nerve Supply to Bone. Blood vessels and nerves enter the bone through the nutrient
foramen.

In addition to the blood vessels, nerves follow the same paths into the bone where they tend
to concentrate in the more metabolically active regions of the bone. The nerves sense pain,
and it appears the nerves also play roles in regulating blood supplies and in bone growth,
hence their concentrations in metabolically active sites of the bone.

Bone Growth
Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal plate by a process that is similar to endochondral
ossification. The cartilage in the region of the epiphyseal plate next to the epiphysis
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continues to grow by mitosis. The chondrocytes, in the region next to the diaphysis, age and
degenerate. Osteoblasts move in and ossify the matrix to form bone. This process continues
throughout childhood and the adolescent years until the cartilage growth slows and finally
stops. When cartilage growth ceases, usually in the early twenties, the epiphyseal plate
completely ossifies so that only a thin epiphyseal line remains and the bones can no longer
grow in length. Bone growth is under the influence of growth hormone from
the anterior pituitary gland and sex hormones from the ovaries and testes.

Even though bones stop growing in length in early adulthood, they can continue to increase
in thickness or diameter throughout life in response to stress from increased muscle activity or
to weight. The increase in diameter is called appositional growth. Osteoblasts in the
periosteum form compact bone around the external bone surface. At the same time,
osteoclasts in the endosteum break down bone on the internal bone surface, around the
medullary cavity. These two processes together increase the diameter of the bone and, at
the same time, keep the bone from becoming excessively heavy and bulky.

Divisions of the Skeleton

The adult human skeleton usually consists of 206 named bones. These bones can be
grouped in two divisions: axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton. The 80 bones of the axial
skeleton form the vertical axis of the body. They include the bones of the head, vertebral
column, ribs and breastbone or sternum. The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones
and includes the free appendages and their attachments to the axial skeleton. The free
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appendages are the upper and lower extremities, or limbs, and their attachments which are
called girdles. The named bones of the body are listed below by category.

Axial Skeleton (80 bones)

Skull (28)

Cranial Bones

 Parietal (2)
 Temporal (2)
 Frontal (1)
 Occipital (1)
 Ethmoid (1)
 Sphenoid (1)

Facial Bones

 Maxilla (2)
 Zygomatic (2)
 Mandible (1)
 Nasal (2)
 Platine (2)
 Inferior nasal concha (2)
 Lacrimal (2)
 Vomer (1)
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Auditory Ossicles

 Malleus (2)
 Incus (2)
 Stapes (2)

Hyoid (1)

Vertebral Column

 Cervical vertebrae (7)

 Thoracic vertebrae (12)
 Lumbar vertebrae (5)
 Sacrum (1)
 Coccyx (1)

Thoracic Cage

 Sternum (1)
 Ribs (24)
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Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones)

Pectoral girdles

 Clavicle (2)
 Scapula (2)

Upper Extremity

 Humerus (2)
 Radius (2)
 Ulna (2)
 Carpals (16)
 Metacarpals (10)
 Phalanges (28)

Pelvic Girdle

 Coxal, innominate, or hip bones (2)

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Lower Extremity

 Femur (2)
 Tibia (2)
 Fibula (2)
 Patella (2)
 Tarsals (14)
 Metatarsals (10)
 Phalanges (28)

Articulations
An articulation, or joint, is where two bones come together. In terms of the amount of
movement they allow, there are three types of joints: immovable, slightly movable and freely
movable.

Synarthroses
Synarthroses are immovable joints. The singular form is synarthrosis. In these joints, the bones
come in very close contact and are separated only by a thin layer of fibrous connective
tissue. The sutures in the skull are examples of immovable joints.

Amphiarthroses
Slightly movable joints are called amphiarthroses. The singular form is amphiarthrosis. In this
type of joint, the bones are connected by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage. The ribs
connected to the sternum by costal cartilages are slightly movable joints connected by
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hyaline cartilage. The symphysis pubis is a slightly movable joint in which there is a
fibrocartilage pad between the two bones. The joints between the vertebrae and the
intervertebral disks are also of this type.

Diarthroses
Most joints in the adult body are diarthroses, or freely movable joints. The singular form is
diarthrosis. In this type of joint, the ends of the opposing bones are covered with hyaline
cartilage, the articular cartilage, and they are separated by a space called the joint cavity.
The components of the joints are enclosed in a dense fibrous joint capsule. The outer layer of
the capsule consists of the ligaments that hold the bones together. The inner layer is
the synovial membrane that secretes synovial fluid into the joint cavity for lubrication.
Because all of these joints have a synovial membrane, they are sometimes called synovial
joints.

Suggested Link:
Watch this 3D Anatomical tutorial to better understand the Skeletal System.

https://youtu.be/fIoBoGSPkws
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Summary of the Lesson:

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Skeletal System:

 The human skeleton is well-adapted for the functions it must perform. Functions of
bones include support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and formation of
blood cells.
 There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. Compact bone consists of
closely packed osteons, or haversian system. Spongy bone consists of plates of bone,
called trabeculae, around irregular spaces that contain red bone marrow.
 Osteogenesis is the process of bone formation. Three types of cells, osteoblasts,
osteocytes, and osteoclasts, are involved in bone formation and remodeling.
 In intramembranous ossification, connective tissue membranes are replaced by bone.
This process occurs in the flat bones of the skull. In endochondral ossification, bone
tissue replaces hyaline cartilage models. Most bones are formed in this manner.
 Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal plate between the diaphysis and the epiphysis.
When the epiphyseal plate completely ossifies, bones no longer increase in length.
 Bones may be classified as long, short, flat, or irregular. The diaphysis of a long bone is
the central shaft. There is an epiphysis at each end of the diaphysis.
 The adult human skeleton usually consists of 206 named bones and these bones can
be grouped in two divisions: axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
 The bones of the skeleton are grouped in two divisions: axial skeleton and
appendicular skeleton.
 There are three types of joints in terms of the amount of movement they allow:
synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthroses (slightly movable), and diarthroses (freely
movable).
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Lesson 2: Muscular System

The muscular system is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers. Their predominant
function is contractibility. Muscles, attached to bones or internal organs and blood vessels,
are responsible for movement. Nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle
contraction. Exceptions to this are the action of cilia, the flagellum on sperm cells, and
amoeboid movement of some white blood cells.

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
 Explain the organization of muscle tissue;
 Describe the function and structure of skeletal, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle;
 Explain how muscles work with tendons to move the body.

Discussion:

The integrated action of joints, bones, and skeletal muscles produces obvious movements
such as walking and running. Skeletal muscles also produce more subtle movements that
result in various facial expressions, eye movements, and respiration.

In addition to movement, muscle contraction also fulfills some other important functions in
the body, such as posture, joint stability, and heat production. Posture, such as sitting and
standing, is maintained as a result of muscle contraction. The skeletal muscles are continually
making fine adjustments that hold the body in stationary positions. The tendons of many
muscles extend over joints and in this way contribute to joint stability. This is particularly
evident in the knee and shoulder joints, where muscle tendons are a major factor in
stabilizing the joint. Heat production, to maintain body temperature, is an important by-
product of muscle metabolism. Nearly 85 percent of the heat produced in the body is the
result of muscle contraction.

A whole skeletal muscle is considered an organ of the muscular system. Each organ
or muscle consists of skeletal muscle tissue, connective tissue, nerve tissue,
and blood or vascular tissue.

Skeletal muscles vary considerably in size, shape, and arrangement of fibers.

They range from extremely tiny strands such as the stapedium muscle of the middle ear to
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large masses such as the muscles of the thigh. Some skeletal muscles are broad in shape
and some narrow. In some muscles the fibers are parallel to the long axis of the muscle; in
some they converge to a narrow attachment; and in some they are oblique.

Each skeletal muscle fiber is a single cylindrical muscle cell. An individual skeletal muscle
may be made up of hundreds, or even thousands, of muscle fibers bundled together and
wrapped in a connective tissue covering. Each muscle is surrounded by a connective tissue
sheath called the epimysium. Fascia, connective tissue outside the epimysium, surrounds and
separates the muscles. Portions of the epimysium project inward to divide the muscle into
compartments. Each compartment contains a bundle of muscle fibers. Each bundle of
muscle fiber is called a fasciculus and is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called
the perimysium. Within the fasciculus, each individual muscle cell, called a muscle fiber, is
surrounded by connective tissue called the endomysium.

Skeletal muscle cells (fibers), like other body cells, are soft and fragile. The connective tissue
covering furnish support and protection for the delicate cells and allow them to withstand
the forces of contraction. The coverings also provide pathways for the passage of blood
vessels and nerves.

Commonly, the epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium extend beyond the fleshy part of
the muscle, the belly or gaster, to form a thick ropelike tendon or a broad, flat sheet-
like aponeurosis. The tendon and aponeurosis form indirect attachments from muscles to
the periosteum of bones or to the connective tissue of other muscles. Typically a muscle
spans a joint and is attached to bones by tendons at both ends. One of the bones remains
relatively fixed or stable while the other end moves as a result of muscle contraction.
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Skeletal muscles have an abundant supply of blood vessels and nerves. This is directly related
to the primary function of skeletal muscle, contraction. Before a skeletal muscle fiber can
contract, it has to receive an impulse from a nerve cell. Generally, an artery and at least one
vein accompany each nerve that penetrates the epimysium of a skeletal muscle. Branches
of the nerve and blood vessels follow the connective tissue components of the muscle of a
nerve cell and with one or more minute blood vessels called capillaries.

In the body, there are three types of muscle: skeletal (striated), smooth, and cardiac.

Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle, attached to bones, is responsible for skeletal movements.
The peripheral portion of the central nervous system (CNS) controls the skeletal muscles. Thus,
these muscles are under conscious, or voluntary, control. The basic unit is the
muscle fiber with many nuclei. These muscle fibers are striated (having transverse streaks)
and each acts independently of neighboring muscle fibers.

Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle, found in the walls of the hollow internal organs such as blood vessels,
the gastrointestinal tract, bladder, and uterus, is under control of the autonomic nervous
system. Smooth muscle cannot be controlled consciously and thus acts involuntarily. The
non-striated (smooth) muscle cell is spindle-shaped and has one central nucleus. Smooth
muscle contracts slowly and rhythmically.

Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle, found in the walls of the heart, is also under control of the autonomic
nervous system. The cardiac muscle cell has one central nucleus, like smooth muscle, but it
also is striated, like skeletal muscle. The cardiac muscle cell is rectangular in shape.
The contraction of cardiac muscle is involuntary, strong, and rhythmical.

Smooth and cardiac muscle will be discussed in detail with respect to their appropriate
systems. This unit mainly covers the skeletal muscular system.

Muscle Groups
There are more than 600 muscles in the body, which together account for about 40 percent
of a person's weight.

Most skeletal muscles have names that describe some feature of the muscle. Often several
criteria are combined into one name. Associating the muscle's characteristics with its name
 27

will help you learn and remember them. The following are some terms relating to muscle
features that are used in naming muscles.

 Size: vastus (huge); maximus (large); longus (long); minimus (small); brevis (short).
 Shape: deltoid (triangular); rhomboid (like a rhombus with equal and parallel sides);
latissimus (wide); teres (round); trapezius (like a trapezoid, a four-sided figure with two
sides parallel).
 Direction of fibers: rectus (straight); transverse (across); oblique (diagonally); orbicularis
(circular).
 Location: pectoralis (chest); gluteus (buttock or rump); brachii (arm); supra- (above);
infra- (below); sub- (under or beneath); lateralis (lateral).
 Number of origins: biceps (two heads); triceps (three heads); quadriceps (four heads).
 Origin and insertion: sternocleidomastoideus (origin on the sternum and clavicle,
insertion on the mastoid process); brachioradialis (origin on the brachium or arm,
insertion on the radius).
 Action: abductor (to abduct a structure); adductor (to adduct a structure); flexor (to
flex a structure); extensor (to extend a structure); levator (to lift or elevate a structure);
masseter (a chewer).

Muscles of the Head and Neck

Humans have well-developed muscles in the face that permit a large variety
of facial expressions. Because the muscles are used to show surprise, disgust, anger, fear,
and other emotions, they are an important means of nonverbal communication. Muscles of
facial expression include frontalis, orbicularis oris, laris oculi, buccinator, and zygomaticus.
These muscles of facial expressions are identified in the illustration below.
 28

There are four pairs of muscles that are responsible for chewing movements or mastication.
All of these muscles connect to the mandible and they are some of the strongest muscles in
the body. Two of the muscles, temporalis and masseter, are identified in the illustration
above.

There are numerous muscles associated with the throat, the hyoid bone and the vertebral
column; only two of the more obvious and superficial neck muscles are identified in the
illustration: sternocleidomastoid and trapezius.

Muscles of the Trunk

The muscles of the trunk include those that move the vertebral column, the muscles that
form the thoracic and abdominal walls, and those that cover the pelvic outlet.
 29

The erector spinae group of muscles on each side of the vertebral column is a
large muscle mass that extends from the sacrum to the skull. These muscles are primarily
responsible for extending the vertebral column to maintain erect posture. The deep back
muscles occupy the space between the spinous and transverse processes of adjacent
vertebrae.

The muscles of the thoracic wall are involved primarily in the process of breathing. The
intercostal muscles are located in spaces between the ribs. They contract during
forced expiration. External intercostal muscles contract to elevate the ribs during the
inspiration phase of breathing. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that forms a
partition between the thorax and the abdomen. It has three openings in it for structures that
have to pass from the thorax to the abdomen.

The abdomen, unlike the thorax and pelvis, has no bony reinforcements or protection. The
wall consists entirely of four muscle pairs, arranged in layers, and the fascia that envelops
them. The abdominal wall muscles are identified in the illustration below.

The pelvic outlet is formed by two muscular sheets and their associated fascia.

Muscles of the Upper Extremity

The muscles of the
upper extremity include those
that attach the scapula to the
thorax and generally move the
scapula, those that attach
the humerus to the scapula
and generally move the arm,
and those that are located in
the arm or forearm that move
the forearm, wrist, and hand.
The illustration below shows
some of the muscles of the
upper extremity.

Muscles that move the shoulder and arm include the trapezius and serratus anterior.
The pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, deltoid, and rotator cuff muscles connect to the
humerus and move the arm.
 30

The muscles that move the forearm are located along the humerus, which include the
triceps brachii, biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis. The 20 or more muscles that
cause most wrist, hand, and finger movements are located along the forearm.

Muscles of the Lower Extremity

The muscles that move the thigh have their origins on some
part of the pelvic girdle and their insertions on the femur. The
largest muscle mass belongs to the posterior group, the
gluteal muscles, which, as a group, adduct the thigh. The
iliopsoas, an anterior muscle, flexes the thigh. The muscles in
the medial compartment adduct the thigh. The illustration
below shows some of the muscles of the lower extremity.

Muscles that move the leg are located in the thigh region.
The quadriceps femoris muscle group straightens the leg at
the knee. The hamstrings are antagonists to the quadriceps
femoris muscle group, which are used to flex the leg at the
knee.

The muscles located in the leg that move the ankle

and foot are divided into anterior, posterior,
and lateral compartments. The tibialis anterior, which
dorsiflexes the foot, is antagonistic to the gastrocnemius and
soleus muscles, which plantar flex the foot.

The Sliding Filament Model of Contraction

When signaled by a motor neuron, a skeletal muscle fiber contracts as the thin filaments are
pulled and then slide past the thick filaments within the fiber’s sarcomeres. This process is
known as the sliding filament model of muscle contraction (Figure 3). The sliding can only
occur when myosin-binding sites on the actin filaments are exposed by a series of steps that
begins with Ca++ entry into the sarcoplasm.
 31

Figure 3. The Sliding Filament Model of Muscle Contraction. When a sarcomere contracts, the Z lines move closer together, and
the I band becomes smaller. The A band stays the same width. At full contraction, the thin and thick filaments overlap.

Tropomyosin is a protein that winds around the chains of the actin filament and covers the
myosin-binding sites to prevent actin from binding to myosin. Tropomyosin binds to troponin
to form a troponin-tropomyosin complex. The troponin-tropomyosin complex prevents the
myosin “heads” from binding to the active sites on the actin microfilaments. Troponin also
has a binding site for Ca++ ions.

To initiate muscle contraction, tropomyosin has to expose the myosin-binding site on an actin
filament to allow cross-bridge formation between the actin and myosin microfilaments. The
first step in the process of contraction is for Ca++ to bind to troponin so that tropomyosin can
slide away from the binding sites on the actin strands. This allows the myosin heads to bind to
these exposed binding sites and form cross-bridges. The thin filaments are then pulled by the
myosin heads to slide past the thick filaments toward the center of the sarcomere. But each
head can only pull a very short distance before it has reached its limit and must be “re-
cocked” before it can pull again, a step that requires ATP.

ATP and Muscle Contraction

For thin filaments to continue to slide past thick filaments during muscle contraction, myosin
heads must pull the actin at the binding sites, detach, re-cock, attach to more binding sites,
pull, detach, re-cock, etc. This repeated movement is known as the cross-bridge cycle. This
motion of the myosin heads is similar to the oars when an individual rows a boat: The paddle
of the oars (the myosin heads) pull, are lifted from the water (detach), repositioned (re-
cocked) and then immersed again to pull (Figure 4). Each cycle requires energy, and the
action of the myosin heads in the sarcomeres repetitively pulling on the thin filaments also
requires energy, which is provided by ATP.
 32

Figure 4. Skeletal Muscle Contraction. (a) The active site on actin is exposed as calcium binds to troponin. (b) The myosin head is
attracted to actin, and myosin binds actin at its actin-binding site, forming the cross-bridge. (c) During the power stroke, the
phosphate generated in the previous contraction cycle is released. This results in the myosin head pivoting toward the
center of the sarcomere, after which the attached ADP and phosphate group are released. (d) A new molecule of ATP
attaches to the myosin head, causing the cross-bridge to detach. (e) The myosin head hydrolyzes ATP to ADP and
phosphate, which returns the myosin to the cocked position.

Cross-bridge formation occurs when the myosin head attaches to the actin while adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (P i) are still bound to myosin (Figure 4a,b). Pi is
then released, causing myosin to form a stronger attachment to the actin, after which the
myosin head moves toward the M-line, pulling the actin along with it. As actin is pulled, the
filaments move approximately 10 nm toward the M-line. This movement is called the power
stroke, as movement of the thin filament occurs at this step (Figure 4c). In the absence of
ATP, the myosin head will not detach from actin.

One part of the myosin head attaches to the binding site on the actin, but the head has
another binding site for ATP. ATP binding causes the myosin head to detach from the actin
(Figure 4d). After this occurs, ATP is converted to ADP and P i by the intrinsic ATPase activity of
myosin. The energy released during ATP hydrolysis changes the angle of the myosin head
into a cocked position (Figure 4e). The myosin head is now in position for further movement.
 33

When the myosin head is cocked, myosin is in a high-energy configuration. This energy is
expended as the myosin head moves through the power stroke, and at the end of the
power stroke, the myosin head is in a low-energy position. After the power stroke, ADP is
released; however, the formed cross-bridge is still in place, and actin and myosin are bound
together. As long as ATP is available, it readily attaches to myosin, the cross-bridge cycle can
recur, and muscle contraction can continue.

Note that each thick filament of roughly 300 myosin molecules has multiple myosin heads,
and many cross-bridges form and break continuously during muscle contraction. Multiply this
by all of the sarcomeres in one myofibril, all the myofibrils in one muscle fiber, and all of the
muscle fibers in one skeletal muscle, and you can understand why so much energy (ATP) is
needed to keep skeletal muscles working. In fact, it is the loss of ATP that results in the rigor
mortis observed soon after someone dies. With no further ATP production possible, there is no
ATP available for myosin heads to detach from the actin-binding sites, so the cross-bridges
stay in place, causing the rigidity in the skeletal muscles.

Sources of ATP

ATP supplies the energy for muscle contraction to take place. In addition to its direct role in
the cross-bridge cycle, ATP also provides the energy for the active-transport Ca++ pumps in
the SR. Muscle contraction does not occur without sufficient amounts of ATP. The amount of
ATP stored in muscle is very low, only sufficient to power a few seconds worth of contractions.
As it is broken down, ATP must therefore be regenerated and replaced quickly to allow for
sustained contraction. There are three mechanisms by which ATP can be regenerated:
creatine phosphate metabolism, anaerobic glycolysis, fermentation and aerobic respiration.

Creatine phosphate is a molecule that can store energy in its phosphate bonds. In a resting
muscle, excess ATP transfers its energy to creatine, producing ADP and creatine phosphate.
This acts as an energy reserve that can be used to quickly create more ATP. When the
muscle starts to contract and needs energy, creatine phosphate transfers its phosphate
back to ADP to form ATP and creatine. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme creatine
kinase and occurs very quickly; thus, creatine phosphate-derived ATP powers the first few
seconds of muscle contraction. However, creatine phosphate can only provide
approximately 15 seconds worth of energy, at which point another energy source has to be
used (Figure 5).
 34

Figure 5. Muscle Metabolism. Some ATP is stored in a resting muscle. As contraction starts, it is used up in seconds. More ATP is
generated from creatine phosphate for about 15 seconds.

As the ATP produced by creatine phosphate is depleted, muscles turn to glycolysis as an ATP
source. Glycolysis is an anaerobic (non-oxygen-dependent) process that breaks down
glucose (sugar) to produce ATP; however, glycolysis cannot generate ATP as quickly as
creatine phosphate. Thus, the switch to glycolysis results in a slower rate of ATP availability to
the muscle. The sugar used in glycolysis can be provided by blood glucose or by
metabolizing glycogen that is stored in the muscle. The breakdown of one glucose molecule
produces two ATP and two molecules of pyruvic acid, which can be used in aerobic
respiration or when oxygen levels are low, converted to lactic acid (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Glycolysis and Aerobic Respiration. Each glucose molecule produces two ATP and two molecules of pyruvic acid,
which can be used in aerobic respiration or converted to lactic acid. If oxygen is not available, pyruvic acid is converted to
lactic acid, which may contribute to muscle fatigue. This occurs during strenuous exercise when high amounts of energy are
needed but oxygen cannot be sufficiently delivered to muscle.

If oxygen is available, pyruvic acid is used in aerobic respiration. However, if oxygen is not
available, pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid, which may contribute to muscle fatigue.
This conversion allows the recycling of the enzyme NAD + from NADH, which is needed for
glycolysis to continue. This occurs during strenuous exercise when high amounts of energy
are needed but oxygen cannot be sufficiently delivered to muscle. Glycolysis itself cannot
be sustained for very long (approximately 1 minute of muscle activity), but it is useful in
 35

facilitating short bursts of high-intensity output. This is because glycolysis does not utilize
glucose very efficiently, producing a net gain of two ATPs per molecule of glucose, and the
end product of lactic acid, which may contribute to muscle fatigue as it accumulates.

Aerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose or other nutrients in the presence of oxygen
(O2) to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. Approximately 95 percent of the ATP
required for resting or moderately active muscles is provided by aerobic respiration, which
takes place in mitochondria. The inputs for aerobic respiration include glucose circulating in
the bloodstream, pyruvic acid, and fatty acids. Aerobic respiration is much more efficient
than anaerobic glycolysis, producing approximately 36 ATPs per molecule of glucose versus
four from glycolysis. However, aerobic respiration cannot be sustained without a steady
supply of O2 to the skeletal muscle and is much slower (Figure 7). To compensate, muscles
store small amount of excess oxygen in proteins call myoglobin, allowing for more efficient
muscle contractions and less fatigue. Aerobic training also increases the efficiency of the
circulatory system so that O2 can be supplied to the muscles for longer periods of time.

Figure 7. Cellular Respiration. Aerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen (O2) to produce
carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. Approximately 95 percent of the ATP required for resting or moderately active muscles is
provided by aerobic respiration, which takes place in mitochondria.

Muscle fatigue occurs when a muscle can no longer contract in response to signals from the
nervous system. The exact causes of muscle fatigue are not fully known, although certain
factors have been correlated with the decreased muscle contraction that occurs during
fatigue. ATP is needed for normal muscle contraction, and as ATP reserves are reduced,
muscle function may decline. This may be more of a factor in brief, intense muscle output
rather than sustained, lower intensity efforts. Lactic acid buildup may lower intracellular pH,
affecting enzyme and protein activity. Imbalances in Na+ and K+ levels as a result of
membrane depolarization may disrupt Ca++ flow out of the SR. Long periods of sustained
exercise may damage the SR and the sarcolemma, resulting in impaired Ca ++ regulation.
Intense muscle activity results in an oxygen debt, which is the amount of oxygen needed to
compensate for ATP produced without oxygen during muscle contraction. Oxygen is
 36

required to restore ATP and creatine phosphate levels, convert lactic acid to pyruvic acid,
and, in the liver, to convert lactic acid into glucose or glycogen. Other systems used during
exercise also require oxygen, and all of these combined processes result in the increased
breathing rate that occurs after exercise. Until the oxygen debt has been met, oxygen intake
is elevated, even after exercise has stopped.

Relaxation of a Skeletal Muscle

Relaxing skeletal muscle fibers, and ultimately, the skeletal muscle, begins with the motor
neuron, which stops releasing its chemical signal, ACh, into the synapse at the NMJ. The
muscle fiber will repolarize, which closes the gates in the SR where Ca ++ was being released.
ATP-driven pumps will move Ca++ out of the sarcoplasm back into the SR. This results in the
“reshielding” of the actin-binding sites on the thin filaments. Without the ability to form cross-
bridges between the thin and thick filaments, the muscle fiber loses its tension and relaxes.

Muscle Strength
The number of skeletal muscle fibers in a given muscle is genetically determined and does
not change. Muscle strength is directly related to the amount of myofibrils and sarcomeres
within each fiber. Factors, such as hormones and stress (and artificial anabolic steroids),
acting on the muscle can increase the production of sarcomeres and myofibrils within the
muscle fibers, a change called hypertrophy, which results in the increased mass and bulk in
a skeletal muscle. Likewise, decreased use of a skeletal muscle results in atrophy, where the
number of sarcomeres and myofibrils disappear (but not the number of muscle fibers). It is
common for a limb in a cast to show atrophied muscles when the cast is removed, and
certain diseases, such as polio, show atrophied muscles.

To move an object, referred to as load, the sarcomeres in the muscle fibers of the skeletal
muscle must shorten. The force generated by the contraction of the muscle (or shortening of
the sarcomeres) is called muscle tension. However, muscle tension also is generated when
the muscle is contracting against a load that does not move, resulting in two main types of
skeletal muscle contractions: isotonic contractions and isometric contractions.

In isotonic contractions, where the tension in the muscle stays constant, a load is moved as
the length of the muscle changes (shortens). There are two types of isotonic contractions:
concentric and eccentric. A concentric contraction involves the muscle shortening to move
a load. An example of this is the biceps brachii muscle contracting when a hand weight is
brought upward with increasing muscle tension. As the biceps brachii contract, the angle of
the elbow joint decreases as the forearm is brought toward the body. Here, the biceps
brachii contracts as sarcomeres in its muscle fibers are shortening and cross-bridges form; the
 37

myosin heads pull the actin. An eccentric contraction occurs as the muscle tension
diminishes and the muscle lengthens. In this case, the hand weight is lowered in a slow and
controlled manner as the amount of cross-bridges being activated by nervous system
stimulation decreases. In this case, as tension is released from the biceps brachii, the angle
of the elbow joint increases. Eccentric contractions are also used for movement and
balance of the body.

An isometric contraction occurs as the muscle produces tension without changing the angle
of a skeletal joint. Isometric contractions involve sarcomere shortening and increasing
muscle tension, but do not move a load, as the force produced cannot overcome the
resistance provided by the load. For example, if one attempts to lift a hand weight that is too
heavy, there will be sarcomere activation and shortening to a point, and ever-increasing
muscle tension, but no change in the angle of the elbow joint. In everyday living, isometric
contractions are active in maintaining posture and maintaining bone and joint stability.
However, holding your head in an upright position occurs not because the muscles cannot
move the head, but because the goal is to remain stationary and not produce movement.
Most actions of the body are the result of a combination of isotonic and isometric
contractions working together to produce a wide range of outcomes (Figure 1).
 38

Figure 1. Types of Muscle Contractions. During isotonic contractions, muscle length changes to move a load. During isometric
contractions, muscle length does not change because the load exceeds the tension the muscle can generate.

All of these muscle activities are under the exquisite control of the nervous system. Neural
control regulates concentric, eccentric and isometric contractions, muscle fiber recruitment,
and muscle tone. A crucial aspect of nervous system control of skeletal muscles is the role of
motor units.

Motor Units

As you have learned, every skeletal muscle fiber must be innervated by the axon terminal of
a motor neuron in order to contract. Each muscle fiber is innervated by only one motor
neuron. The actual group of muscle fibers in a muscle innervated by a single motor neuron is
called a motor unit. The size of a motor unit is variable depending on the nature of the
muscle.

A small motor unit is an arrangement where a single motor neuron supplies a small number of
muscle fibers in a muscle. Small motor units permit very fine motor control of the muscle. The
best example in humans is the small motor units of the extraocular eye muscles that move
the eyeballs. There are thousands of muscle fibers in each muscle, but every six or so fibers
are supplied by a single motor neuron, as the axons branch to form synaptic connections at
their individual NMJs. This allows for exquisite control of eye movements so that both eyes
can quickly focus on the same object. Small motor units are also involved in the many fine
movements of the fingers and thumb of the hand for grasping, texting, etc.

A large motor unit is an arrangement where a single motor neuron supplies a large number
of muscle fibers in a muscle. Large motor units are concerned with simple, or “gross,”
movements, such as powerfully extending the knee joint. The best example is the large motor
units of the thigh muscles or back muscles, where a single motor neuron will supply thousands
of muscle fibers in a muscle, as its axon splits into thousands of branches.

There is a wide range of motor units within many skeletal muscles, which gives the nervous
system a wide range of control over the muscle. The small motor units in the muscle will have
smaller, lower-threshold motor neurons that are more excitable, firing first to their skeletal
muscle fibers, which also tend to be the smallest. Activation of these smaller motor units,
results in a relatively small degree of contractile strength (tension) generated in the muscle.
As more strength is needed, larger motor units, with bigger, higher-threshold motor neurons
are enlisted to activate larger muscle fibers. This increasing activation of motor units
produces an increase in muscle contraction known as recruitment. As more motor units are
 39

recruited, the muscle contraction grows progressively stronger. In some muscles, the largest
motor units may generate a contractile force of 50 times more than the smallest motor units
in the muscle. This allows a feather to be picked up using the biceps brachii arm muscle with
minimal force, and a heavy weight to be lifted by the same muscle by recruiting the largest
motor units.

When necessary, the maximal number of motor units in a muscle can be recruited
simultaneously, producing the maximum force of contraction for that muscle, but this cannot
last for very long because of the energy requirements to sustain the contraction. To prevent
complete muscle fatigue, motor units are generally not all simultaneously active, but instead
some motor units rest while others are active, which allows for longer muscle contractions.
The nervous system uses recruitment as a mechanism to efficiently utilize a skeletal muscle.

The Length-Tension Range of a Sarcomere

When a skeletal muscle fiber contracts, myosin heads attach to actin to form cross-bridges
followed by the thin filaments sliding over the thick filaments as the heads pull the actin, and
this results in sarcomere shortening, creating the tension of the muscle contraction. The cross-
bridges can only form where thin and thick filaments already overlap, so that the length of
the sarcomere has a direct influence on the force generated when the sarcomere shortens.
This is called the length-tension relationship.

The ideal length of a sarcomere to produce maximal tension occurs at 80 percent to 120
percent of its resting length, with 100 percent being the state where the medial edges of the
thin filaments are just at the most-medial myosin heads of the thick filaments (Figure 2).

This length maximizes the overlap of actin-binding sites and myosin heads. If a sarcomere is
stretched past this ideal length (beyond 120 percent), thick and thin filaments do not
overlap sufficiently, which results in less tension produced. If a sarcomere is shortened
beyond 80 percent, the zone of overlap is reduced with the thin filaments jutting beyond the
last of the myosin heads and shrinks the H zone, which is normally composed of myosin tails.

Eventually, there is nowhere else for the thin filaments to go and the amount of tension is
diminished. If the muscle is stretched to the point where thick and thin filaments do not
overlap at all, no cross-bridges can be formed, and no tension is produced in that
sarcomere. This amount of stretching does not usually occur, as accessory proteins and
connective tissue oppose extreme stretching.
 40

The Frequency of Motor Neuron Stimulation

A single action potential from a motor neuron will produce a single contraction in the muscle
fibers of its motor unit. This isolated contraction is called a twitch. A twitch can last for a few
milliseconds or 100 milliseconds, depending on the muscle type. The tension produced by a
single twitch can be measured by a myogram, an instrument that measures the amount of
tension produced over time (Figure 3). Each twitch undergoes three phases.

 The first phase is the latent period, during which the action potential is being
propagated along the sarcolemma and Ca++ ions are released from the SR. This is the
phase during which excitation and contraction are being coupled but contraction has
yet to occur.
 The contraction phase occurs next. The Ca++ ions in the sarcoplasm have bound to
troponin, tropomyosin has shifted away from actin-binding sites, cross-bridges formed,
and sarcomeres are actively shortening to the point of peak tension.
 The last phase is the relaxation phase, when tension decreases as contraction stops.
Ca++ ions are pumped out of the sarcoplasm into the SR, and cross-bridge cycling
stops, returning the muscle fibers to their resting state.

Figure 3. A Myogram of a Muscle Twitch. A single muscle twitch has a latent period, a contraction phase when tension increases,
and a relaxation phase when tension decreases. During the latent period, the action potential is being propagated along
the sarcolemma. During the contraction phase, Ca++ ions in the sarcoplasm bind to troponin, tropomyosin moves from
actin-binding sites, cross-bridges form, and sarcomeres shorten. During the relaxation phase, tension decreases as Ca ++ ions
are pumped out of the sarcoplasm and cross-bridge cycling stops.

Although a person can experience a muscle “twitch,” a single twitch does not produce any
significant muscle activity in a living body. A series of action potentials to the muscle fibers is
 41

necessary to produce a muscle contraction that can produce work. Normal muscle
contraction is more sustained, and it can be modified by input from the nervous system to
produce varying amounts of force; this is called a graded muscle response. The frequency of
action potentials (nerve impulses) from a motor neuron and the number of motor neurons
transmitting action potentials both affect the tension produced in skeletal muscle.

The rate at which a motor neuron fires action potentials affects the tension produced in the
skeletal muscle. If the fibers are stimulated while a previous twitch is still occurring, the
second twitch will be stronger. This response is called wave summation, because the
excitation-contraction coupling effects of successive motor neuron signaling is summed or
added together (Figure 4a). At the molecular level, summation occurs because the second
stimulus triggers the release of more Ca++ ions, which become available to activate
additional sarcomeres while the muscle is still contracting from the first stimulus. Summation
results in greater contraction of the motor unit.

If the frequency of motor neuron signaling increases, summation and subsequent muscle
tension in the motor unit continues to rise until it reaches a peak point. The tension at this
point is about three to four times greater than the tension of a single twitch, a state referred
to as incomplete tetanus. During incomplete tetanus, the muscle goes through quick cycles
of contraction with a short relaxation phase for each. If the stimulus frequency is so high that
the relaxation phase disappears completely, contractions become continuous in a process
called complete tetanus (Figure 4b).

Figure 4. Wave Summation and Tetanus. (a) The excitation-contraction coupling effects of successive motor neuron signaling is
added together which is referred to as wave summation. The bottom of each wave, the end of the relaxation phase,
represents the point of stimulus. (b) When the stimulus frequency is so high that the relaxation phase disappears completely,
the contractions become continuous; this is called tetanus.

During tetanus, the concentration of Ca++ ions in the sarcoplasm allows virtually all of the
sarcomeres to form cross-bridges and shorten, so that a contraction can continue
uninterrupted (until the muscle fatigues and can no longer produce tension).
 42

Treppe

Figure 5. Treppe. When muscle tension increases in a graded manner that looks like a set of stairs, it is called treppe. The
bottom of each wave represents the point of stimulus.

When a skeletal muscle has been dormant for an extended period and then activated to
contract, with all other things being equal, the initial contractions generate about one-half
the force of later contractions. The muscle tension increases in a graded manner that to
some looks like a set of stairs. This tension increase is called treppe, a condition where muscle
contractions become more efficient. It’s also known as the “staircase effect” (Figure 5).
It is believed that treppe results from a higher concentration of Ca ++ in the sarcoplasm
resulting from the steady stream of signals from the motor neuron. It can only be maintained
with adequate ATP.

Muscle Tone

Skeletal muscles are rarely completely relaxed, or flaccid. Even if a muscle is not producing
movement, it is contracted a small amount to maintain its contractile proteins and
produce muscle tone. The tension produced by muscle tone allows muscles to continually
stabilize joints and maintain posture.

Muscle tone is accomplished by a complex interaction between the nervous system and
skeletal muscles that results in the activation of a few motor units at a time, most likely in a
cyclical manner. In this manner, muscles never fatigue completely, as some motor units can
recover while others are active.

The absence of the low-level contractions that lead to muscle tone is referred to
as hypotonia or atrophy, and can result from damage to parts of the central nervous system
(CNS), such as the cerebellum, or from loss of innervations to a skeletal muscle, as in
poliomyelitis. Hypotonic muscles have a flaccid appearance and display functional
impairments, such as weak reflexes. Conversely, excessive muscle tone is referred to
 43

as hypertonia, accompanied by hyperreflexia (excessive reflex responses), often the result of

damage to upper motor neurons in the CNS. Hypertonia can present with muscle rigidity (as
seen in Parkinson’s disease) or spasticity, a phasic change in muscle tone, where a limb will
“snap” back from passive stretching (as seen in some strokes).

Suggested Link:

Watch this 3D Anatomical tutorial to learn more about Anatomy of a Muscle Fiber.

https://youtu.be/uY2ZOsCnXIA

Summary of the Lesson:

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Muscular System:

 One of the most predominant characteristics of skeletal muscle tissue is its contractility
and nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction.
 Four functions of muscle contraction are movement, posture, joint stability, and heat
production.
 Three types of muscle are skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
 Each muscle fiber is surrounded by endomysium. The fibers are collected into bundles
covered by perimysium. Many bundles, or fasciculi, are wrapped together by the
epimysium to form a whole muscle.
 Muscles are attached to bones by tendons.
 Muscle features such as size, shape, direction of fibers, location, number of origin,
origin and insertion, and action are often used in naming muscles.
 Four major muscle groups of the body include:
o Muscles of the head and neck;
o Muscles of the trunk;
o Muscles of the upper extremity; and
o Muscles of the lower extremity.
 44

EA 2 – Lesson 2 of Module 2

A. What are the eight basic muscle movement? Describe each.

B. How do we name each muscle?

 45

Lesson 3: Integumentary System

What do you think when you look at your skin in the mirror? Do you think about covering it
with makeup, adding a tattoo, or maybe a body piercing? Or do you think about the fact
that the skin belongs to one of the body’s most essential and dynamic systems: the
integumentary system? The integumentary system refers to the skin and its accessory
structures, and it is responsible for much more than simply lending to your outward
appearance. In the adult human body, the skin makes up about 16 percent of body weight
and covers an area of 1.5 to 2 m2. In fact, the skin and accessory structures are the largest
organ system in the human body. As such, the skin protects your inner organs and it is in
need of daily care and protection to maintain its health. This chapter will introduce the
structure and functions of the integumentary system, as well as some of the diseases,
disorders, and injuries that can affect this system.

Lesson Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 Describe the integumentary system and the role it plays in homeostasis;
 Describe the layers of the skin and the functions of each layer; and
 Describe the accessory structures of the skin and the functions of each.

Discussion:
Although you may not typically think of the skin as an organ, it is in fact made of tissues that
work together as a single structure to perform unique and critical functions. The skin and its
accessory structures make up the integumentary system, which provides the body with
overall protection. The skin is made of multiple layers of cells and tissues, which are held to
underlying structures by connective tissue (Figure 1). The deeper layer of skin is well
vascularized (has numerous blood vessels). It also has numerous sensory, and autonomic and
sympathetic nerve fibers ensuring communication to and from the brain.
 46

Figure 1. Layers of Skin. The skin is composed of two main layers: the epidermis, made of closely packed epithelial cells, and
the dermis, made of dense, irregular connective tissue that houses blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, and other
structures. Beneath the dermis lies the hypodermis, which is composed mainly of loose connective and fatty tissues.

The Epidermis

The epidermis is composed of keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. It is made of four

or five layers of epithelial cells, depending on its location in the body. It does not have any
blood vessels within it (i.e., it is avascular). Skin that has four layers of cells is referred to as
“thin skin.” From deep to superficial, these layers are the stratum basale, stratum spinosum,
stratum granulosum, and stratum corneum. Most of the skin can be classified as thin skin.
“Thick skin” is found only on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. It has a fifth
layer, called the stratum lucidum, located between the stratum corneum and the stratum
granulosum (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Thin Skin versus Thick Skin. These slides show cross-sections of the epidermis and dermis of (a) thin and (b) thick skin.
Note the significant difference in the thickness of the epithelial layer of the thick skin. From top, LM × 40, LM × 40.
(Micrographs provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
 47

The cells in all of the layers except the stratum basale are called keratinocytes.
A keratinocyte is a cell that manufactures and stores the protein keratin. Keratin is an
intracellular fibrous protein that gives hair, nails, and skin their hardness and water-resistant
properties. The keratinocytes in the stratum corneum are dead and regularly slough away,
being replaced by cells from the deeper layers (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Epidermis. The epidermis is epithelium composed of multiple layers of cells. The basal layer consists of cuboidal cells,
whereas the outer layers are squamous, keratinized cells, so the whole epithelium is often described as being keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium. LM × 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School ©
2012)

Stratum Basale

The stratum basale (also called the stratum germinativum) is the deepest epidermal layer
and attaches the epidermis to the basal lamina, below which lie the layers of the dermis. The
cells in the stratum basale bond to the dermis via intertwining collagen fibers, referred to as
the basement membrane. A finger-like projection, or fold, known as the dermal
papilla (plural = dermal papillae) is found in the superficial portion of the dermis. Dermal
papillae increase the strength of the connection between the epidermis and dermis; the
greater the folding, the stronger the connections made (Figure 4).
 48

Figure 4. Layers of the Epidermis. The epidermis of thick skin has five layers: stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum
granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum.

The stratum basale is a single layer of cells primarily made of basal cells. A basal cell is a
cuboidal-shaped stem cell that is a precursor of the keratinocytes of the epidermis. All of the
keratinocytes are produced from this single layer of cells, which are constantly going through
mitosis to produce new cells. As new cells are formed, the existing cells are pushed
superficially away from the stratum basale. Two other cell types are found dispersed among
the basal cells in the stratum basale. The first is a Merkel cell, which functions as a receptor
and is responsible for stimulating sensory nerves that the brain perceives as touch. These cells
are especially abundant on the surfaces of the hands and feet. The second is a melanocyte,
a cell that produces the pigment melanin. Melanin gives hair and skin its color, and also
helps protect the living cells of the epidermis from ultraviolet (UV) radiation damage.

In a growing fetus, fingerprints form where the cells of the stratum basale meet the papillae
of the underlying dermal layer (papillary layer), resulting in the formation of the ridges on
your fingers that you recognize as fingerprints. Fingerprints are unique to each individual and
are used for forensic analyses because the patterns do not change with the growth and
aging processes.
 49

Stratum Spinosum

As the name suggests, the stratum spinosum is spiny in appearance due to the protruding
cell processes that join the cells via a structure called a desmosome. The desmosomes
interlock with each other and strengthen the bond between the cells. It is interesting to note
that the “spiny” nature of this layer is an artifact of the staining process. Unstained epidermis
samples do not exhibit this characteristic appearance. The stratum spinosum is composed of
eight to 10 layers of keratinocytes, formed as a result of cell division in the stratum basale
(Figure 5). Interspersed among the keratinocytes of this layer is a type of dendritic cell called
the Langerhans cell, which functions as a macrophage by engulfing bacteria, foreign
particles, and damaged cells that occur in this layer.

Figure 5. Cells of the Epidermis. The cells in the different layers of the epidermis originate from basal cells located in the stratum
basale, yet the cells of each layer are distinctively different. EM × 2700. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of
Michigan Medical School © 2012)

The keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum begin the synthesis of keratin and release a water-repelling
glycolipid that helps prevent water loss from the body, making the skin relatively waterproof. As new
keratinocytes are produced atop the stratum basale, the keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum are
pushed into the stratum granulosum.
 50

Stratum Granulosum

The stratum granulosum has a grainy appearance due to further changes to the
keratinocytes as they are pushed from the stratum spinosum. The cells (three to five layers
deep) become flatter, their cell membranes thicken, and they generate large amounts of
the proteins keratin, which is fibrous, and keratohyalin, which accumulates as lamellar
granules within the cells (see Figure 4). These two proteins make up the bulk of the
keratinocyte mass in the stratum granulosum and give the layer its grainy appearance. The
nuclei and other cell organelles disintegrate as the cells die, leaving behind the keratin,
keratohyalin, and cell membranes that will form the stratum lucidum, the stratum corneum,
and the accessory structures of hair and nails.

Stratum Lucidum

The stratum lucidum is a smooth, seemingly translucent layer of the epidermis located just
above the stratum granulosum and below the stratum corneum. This thin layer of cells is
found only in the thick skin of the palms, soles, and digits. The keratinocytes that compose
the stratum lucidum are dead and flattened (see Figure 4). These cells are densely packed
with eleiden, a clear protein rich in lipids, derived from keratohyalin, which gives these cells
their transparent (i.e., lucid) appearance and provides a barrier to water.

Stratum Corneum

The stratum corneum is the most superficial layer of the epidermis and is the layer exposed to
the outside environment (see Figure 4). The increased keratinization (also called
cornification) of the cells in this layer gives it its name. There are usually 15 to 30 layers of cells
in the stratum corneum. This dry, dead layer helps prevent the penetration of microbes and
the dehydration of underlying tissues, and provides a mechanical protection against
abrasion for the more delicate, underlying layers. Cells in this layer are shed periodically and
are replaced by cells pushed up from the stratum granulosum (or stratum lucidum in the
case of the palms and soles of feet). The entire layer is replaced during a period of about 4
weeks. Cosmetic procedures, such as microdermabrasion, help remove some of the dry,
upper layer and aim to keep the skin looking “fresh” and healthy.
 51

Dermis

Figure 6. Layers of the Dermis. This stained slide shows the two components of the dermis—the papillary layer and the reticular
layer. Both are made of connective tissue with fibers of collagen extending from one to the other, making the border
between the two somewhat indistinct. The dermal papillae extending into the epidermis belong to the papillary layer,
whereas the dense collagen fiber bundles below belong to the reticular layer. LM × 10. (credit: modification of work by
“kilbad”/Wikimedia Commons)

The dermis might be considered the “core” of the integumentary system (derma– = “skin”),
as distinct from the epidermis (epi– = “upon” or “over”) and hypodermis (hypo– = “below”).
It contains blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and other structures, such as hair follicles and
sweat glands. The dermis is made of two layers of connective tissue that compose an
interconnected mesh of elastin and collagenous fibers, produced by fibroblasts (Figure 6).

Papillary Layer

The papillary layer is made of loose, areolar connective tissue, which means the collagen
and elastin fibers of this layer form a loose mesh. This superficial layer of the dermis projects
into the stratum basale of the epidermis to form finger-like dermal papillae (see Figure 6).
Within the papillary layer are fibroblasts, a small number of fat cells (adipocytes), and an
abundance of small blood vessels. In addition, the papillary layer contains phagocytes,
defensive cells that help fight bacteria or other infections that have breached the skin. This
layer also contains lymphatic capillaries, nerve fibers, and touch receptors called the
Meissner corpuscles.

Reticular Layer

Underlying the papillary layer is the much thicker reticular layer, composed of dense,
irregular connective tissue. This layer is well vascularized and has a rich sensory and
sympathetic nerve supply. The reticular layer appears reticulated (net-like) due to a tight
 52

meshwork of fibers. Elastin fibers provide some elasticity to the skin, enabling movement.
Collagen fibers provide structure and tensile strength, with strands of collagen extending into
both the papillary layer and the hypodermis. In addition, collagen binds water to keep the
skin hydrated. Collagen injections and Retin-A creams help restore skin turgor by either
introducing collagen externally or stimulating blood flow and repair of the dermis,
respectively.

Hypodermis

The hypodermis (also called the subcutaneous layer or superficial fascia) is a layer directly
below the dermis and serves to connect the skin to the underlying fascia (fibrous tissue) of
the bones and muscles. It is not strictly a part of the skin, although the border between the
hypodermis and dermis can be difficult to distinguish. The hypodermis consists of well-
vascularized, loose, areolar connective tissue and adipose tissue, which functions as a mode
of fat storage and provides insulation and cushioning for the integument.

Pigmentation

The color of skin is influenced by a number of pigments, including melanin, carotene, and
hemoglobin. Recall that melanin is produced by cells called melanocytes, which are found
scattered throughout the stratum basale of the epidermis. The melanin is transferred into the
keratinocytes via a cellular vesicle called a melanosome (Figure 7).
 53

Figure 7. Skin Pigmentation. The relative coloration of the skin depends of the amount of melanin produced by melanocytes in
the stratum basale and taken up by keratinocytes.

Melanin occurs in two primary forms. Eumelanin exists as black and brown, whereas
pheomelanin provides a red color. Dark-skinned individuals produce more melanin than
those with pale skin. Exposure to the UV rays of the sun or a tanning salon causes melanin to
be manufactured and built up in keratinocytes, as sun exposure stimulates keratinocytes to
secrete chemicals that stimulate melanocytes. The accumulation of melanin in keratinocytes
results in the darkening of the skin, or a tan. This increased melanin accumulation protects
the DNA of epidermal cells from UV ray damage and the breakdown of folic acid, a nutrient
necessary for our health and well-being. In contrast, too much melanin can interfere with the
production of vitamin D, an important nutrient involved in calcium absorption. Thus, the
amount of melanin present in our skin is dependent on a balance between available
sunlight and folic acid destruction, and protection from UV radiation and vitamin D
production.

It requires about 10 days after initial sun exposure for melanin synthesis to peak, which is why
pale-skinned individuals tend to suffer sunburns of the epidermis initially. Dark-skinned
individuals can also get sunburns, but are more protected than are pale-skinned individuals.
Melanosomes are temporary structures that are eventually destroyed by fusion with
lysosomes; this fact, along with melanin-filled keratinocytes in the stratum corneum sloughing
off, makes tanning impermanent.

Too much sun exposure can eventually lead to wrinkling due to the destruction of the
cellular structure of the skin, and in severe cases, can cause sufficient DNA damage to result
in skin cancer. When there is an irregular accumulation of melanocytes in the skin, freckles
appear. Moles are larger masses of melanocytes, and although most are benign, they
should be monitored for changes that might indicate the presence of cancer (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Moles range from benign accumulations of melanocytes to melanomas. These structures populate the landscape
of our skin. (credit: the National Cancer Institute)
 54

Accessory Structures of the Skin

Accessory structures of the skin include hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.
These structures embryologically originate from the epidermis and can extend down through
the dermis into the hypodermis.

Hair

Figure 9. Hair follicles originate in the epidermis and have many different parts.

Hair is a keratinous filament growing out of the epidermis. It is primarily made of dead,
keratinized cells. Strands of hair originate in an epidermal penetration of the dermis called
the hair follicle. The hair shaft is the part of the hair not anchored to the follicle, and much of
this is exposed at the skin’s surface. The rest of the hair, which is anchored in the follicle, lies
below the surface of the skin and is referred to as the hair root. The hair root ends deep in the
dermis at the hair bulb, and includes a layer of mitotically active basal cells called the hair
matrix. The hair bulb surrounds the hair papilla, which is made of connective tissue and
contains blood capillaries and nerve endings from the dermis (Figure 9).
 55

Just as the basal layer of the epidermis forms the layers of epidermis that get pushed to the
surface as the dead skin on the surface sheds, the basal cells of the hair bulb divide and
push cells outward in the hair root and shaft as the hair grows. The medulla forms the central
core of the hair, which is surrounded by the cortex, a layer of compressed, keratinized cells
that is covered by an outer layer of very hard, keratinized cells known as the cuticle. These
layers are depicted in a longitudinal cross-section of the hair follicle (Figure 10), although not
all hair has a medullary layer.

Figure 10. The slide shows a cross-section of a hair follicle. Basal cells of the hair matrix in the center differentiate into cells of
the inner root sheath. Basal cells at the base of the hair root form the outer root sheath. LM × 4. (credit: modification of work
by “kilbad”/Wikimedia Commons)

Hair texture (straight, curly) is determined by the shape and structure of the cortex, and to
the extent that it is present, the medulla. The shape and structure of these layers are, in turn,
determined by the shape of the hair follicle. Hair growth begins with the production of
keratinocytes by the basal cells of the hair bulb. As new cells are deposited at the hair bulb,
the hair shaft is pushed through the follicle toward the surface. Keratinization is completed as
the cells are pushed to the skin surface to form the shaft of hair that is externally visible. The
external hair is completely dead and composed entirely of keratin. For this reason, our hair
does not have sensation. Furthermore, you can cut your hair or shave without damaging the
hair structure because the cut is superficial. Most chemical hair removers also act
superficially; however, electrolysis and yanking both attempt to destroy the hair bulb so hair
cannot grow.

The wall of the hair follicle is made of three concentric layers of cells. The cells of the internal
root sheath surround the root of the growing hair and extend just up to the hair shaft. They
are derived from the basal cells of the hair matrix. The external root sheath, which is an
extension of the epidermis, encloses the hair root. It is made of basal cells at the base of the
hair root and tends to be more keratinous in the upper regions. The glassy membrane is a
 56

thick, clear connective tissue sheath covering the hair root, connecting it to the tissue of the
dermis.

Hair serves a variety of functions, including protection, sensory input, thermoregulation, and
communication. For example, hair on the head protects the skull from the sun. The hair in the
nose and ears, and around the eyes (eyelashes) defends the body by trapping and
excluding dust particles that may contain allergens and microbes. Hair of the eyebrows
prevents sweat and other particles from dripping into and bothering the eyes. Hair also has a
sensory function due to sensory innervation by a hair root plexus surrounding the base of
each hair follicle. Hair is extremely sensitive to air movement or other disturbances in the
environment, much more so than the skin surface. This feature is also useful for the detection
of the presence of insects or other potentially damaging substances on the skin surface.
Each hair root is connected to a smooth muscle called the arrector pili that contracts in
response to nerve signals from the sympathetic nervous system, making the external hair
shaft “stand up.” The primary purpose for this is to trap a layer of air to add insulation. This is
visible in humans as goose bumps and even more obvious in animals, such as when a
frightened cat raises its fur. Of course, this is much more obvious in organisms with a heavier
coat than most humans, such as dogs and cats.

Hair Growth

Hair grows and is eventually shed and replaced by new hair. This occurs in three phases. The
first is the anagen phase, during which cells divide rapidly at the root of the hair, pushing the
hair shaft up and out. The length of this phase is measured in years, typically from 2 to 7
years. The catagen phase lasts only 2 to 3 weeks, and marks a transition from the hair
follicle’s active growth. Finally, during the telogen phase, the hair follicle is at rest and no new
growth occurs. At the end of this phase, which lasts about 2 to 4 months, another anagen
phase begins. The basal cells in the hair matrix then produce a new hair follicle, which
pushes the old hair out as the growth cycle repeats itself. Hair typically grows at the rate of
0.3 mm per day during the anagen phase. On average, 50 hairs are lost and replaced per
day. Hair loss occurs if there is more hair shed than what is replaced and can happen due to
hormonal or dietary changes. Hair loss can also result from the aging process, or the
influence of hormones.

Hair Color

Similar to the skin, hair gets its color from the pigment melanin, produced by melanocytes in
the hair papilla. Different hair color results from differences in the type of melanin, which is
 57

genetically determined. As a person ages, the melanin production decreases, and hair
tends to lose its color and becomes gray and/or white.

Nails

The nail bed is a specialized structure of the epidermis that is found at the tips of our fingers
and toes. The nail body is formed on the nail bed, and protects the tips of our fingers and
toes as they are the farthest extremities and the parts of the body that experience the
maximum mechanical stress (Figure 11).

Figure 11. The nail is an accessory structure of the integumentary system.

In addition, the nail body forms a back-support for picking up small objects with the fingers.
The nail body is composed of densely packed dead keratinocytes. The epidermis in this part
of the body has evolved a specialized structure upon which nails can form. The nail body
forms at the nail root, which has a matrix of proliferating cells from the stratum basale that
enables the nail to grow continuously. The lateral nail fold overlaps the nail on the sides,
helping to anchor the nail body. The nail fold that meets the proximal end of the nail body
forms the nail cuticle, also called the eponychium. The nail bed is rich in blood vessels,
making it appear pink, except at the base, where a thick layer of epithelium over the nail
matrix forms a crescent-shaped region called the lunula (the “little moon”).

Sweat Glands

When the body becomes warm, sudoriferous glands produce sweat to cool the body.
Sweat glands develop from epidermal projections into the dermis and are classified as
 58

merocrine glands; that is, the secretions are excreted by exocytosis through a duct without
affecting the cells of the gland. There are two types of sweat glands, each secreting slightly
different products.

Figure 12. Eccrine glands are coiled glands in the dermis that release sweat that is mostly water.

An eccrine sweat gland is type of gland that produces a hypotonic sweat for
thermoregulation. These glands are found all over the skin’s surface, but are especially
abundant on the palms of the hand, the soles of the feet, and the forehead (Figure 12). They
are coiled glands lying deep in the dermis, with the duct rising up to a pore on the skin
surface, where the sweat is released. This type of sweat, released by exocytosis, is hypotonic
and composed mostly of water, with some salt, antibodies, traces of metabolic waste, and
dermicidin, an antimicrobial peptide. Eccrine glands are a primary component of
thermoregulation in humans and thus help to maintain homeostasis.

An apocrine sweat gland is usually associated with hair follicles in densely hairy areas, such
as armpits and genital regions. Apocrine sweat glands are larger than eccrine sweat glands
and lie deeper in the dermis, sometimes even reaching the hypodermis, with the duct
normally emptying into the hair follicle. In addition to water and salts, apocrine sweat
includes organic compounds that make the sweat thicker and subject to bacterial
decomposition and subsequent smell. The release of this sweat is under both nervous and
hormonal control, and plays a role in the poorly understood human pheromone response.
Most commercial antiperspirants use an aluminum-based compound as their primary active
 59

ingredient to stop sweat. When the antiperspirant enters the sweat gland duct, the
aluminum-based compounds precipitate due to a change in pH and form a physical block
in the duct, which prevents sweat from coming out of the pore.

Sweating regulates body temperature. The composition of the sweat determines whether
body odor is a byproduct of sweating.

Sebaceous Glands

A sebaceous gland is a type of oil gland that is found all over the body and helps to
lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair. Most sebaceous glands are associated with hair
follicles. They generate and excrete sebum, a mixture of lipids, onto the skin surface, thereby
naturally lubricating the dry and dead layer of keratinized cells of the stratum corneum,
keeping it pliable. The fatty acids of sebum also have antibacterial properties, and prevent
water loss from the skin in low-humidity environments. The secretion of sebum is stimulated by
hormones, many of which do not become active until puberty. Thus, sebaceous glands are
relatively inactive during childhood.

Functions of the Integumentary System

The skin and accessory structures perform a variety of essential functions, such as protecting
the body from invasion by microorganisms, chemicals, and other environmental factors;
preventing dehydration; acting as a sensory organ; modulating body temperature and
electrolyte balance; and synthesizing vitamin D. The underlying hypodermis has important
roles in storing fats, forming a “cushion” over underlying structures, and providing insulation
from cold temperatures.

Protection

The skin protects the rest of the body from the basic elements of nature such as wind, water,
and UV sunlight. It acts as a protective barrier against water loss, due to the presence of
layers of keratin and glycolipids in the stratum corneum. It also is the first line of defense
against abrasive activity due to contact with grit, microbes, or harmful chemicals. Sweat
excreted from sweat glands deters microbes from over-colonizing the skin surface by
generating dermicidin, which has antibiotic properties.
 60

Sensory Function

The fact that you can feel an ant crawling on your skin, allowing you to flick it off before it
bites, is because the skin, and especially the hairs projecting from hair follicles in the skin, can
sense changes in the environment. The hair root plexus surrounding the base of the hair
follicle senses a disturbance, and then transmits the information to the central nervous system
(brain and spinal cord), which can then respond by activating the skeletal muscles of your
eyes to see the ant and the skeletal muscles of the body to act against the ant.

Figure 13. In this micrograph of a skin cross-section, you can see a Meissner corpuscle (arrow), a type of touch receptor
located in a dermal papilla adjacent to the basement membrane and stratum basale of the overlying epidermis. LM × 100.
(credit: “Wbensmith”/Wikimedia Commons)

The skin acts as a sense organ because the epidermis, dermis, and the hypodermis contain
specialized sensory nerve structures that detect touch, surface temperature, and pain. These
receptors are more concentrated on the tips of the fingers, which are most sensitive to
touch, especially the Meissner corpuscle (tactile corpuscle) (Figure 13), which responds to
light touch, and the Pacinian corpuscle (lamellated corpuscle), which responds to vibration.
Merkel cells, seen scattered in the stratum basale, are also touch receptors. In addition to
these specialized receptors, there are sensory nerves connected to each hair follicle, pain
and temperature receptors scattered throughout the skin, and motor nerves innervate the
arrector pili muscles and glands. This rich innervation helps us sense our environment and
react accordingly.

Thermoregulation

The integumentary system helps regulate body temperature through its tight association with
the sympathetic nervous system, the division of the nervous system involved in our fight-or-
flight responses. The sympathetic nervous system is continuously monitoring body
temperature and initiating appropriate motor responses. Recall that sweat glands, accessory
structures to the skin, secrete water, salt, and other substances to cool the body when it
 61

becomes warm. Even when the body does not appear to be noticeably sweating,
approximately 500 mL of sweat (insensible perspiration) are secreted a day. If the body
becomes excessively warm due to high temperatures, vigorous activity (Figure 14), or a
combination of the two, sweat glands will be stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system
to produce large amounts of sweat, as much as 0.7 to 1.5 L per hour for an active person.
When the sweat evaporates from the skin surface, the body is cooled as body heat is
dissipated.

In addition to sweating, arterioles in the dermis dilate so that excess heat carried by the
blood can dissipate through the skin and into the surrounding environment (Figure 14). This
accounts for the skin redness that many people experience when exercising.

Figure 14. During strenuous physical activities, such as skiing (a) or running (c), the dermal blood vessels dilate and sweat
secretion increases (b). These mechanisms prevent the body from overheating. In contrast, the dermal blood vessels
constrict to minimize heat loss in response to low temperatures (b). (credit a: “Trysil”/flickr; credit c: Ralph Daily)

When body temperatures drop, the arterioles constrict to minimize heat loss, particularly in
the ends of the digits and tip of the nose. This reduced circulation can result in the skin taking
on a whitish hue. Although the temperature of the skin drops as a result, passive heat loss is
prevented, and internal organs and structures remain warm. If the temperature of the skin
drops too much (such as environmental temperatures below freezing), the conservation of
body core heat can result in the skin actually freezing, a condition called frostbite.

Vitamin D Synthesis

The epidermal layer of human skin synthesizes vitamin D when exposed to UV radiation. In
the presence of sunlight, a form of vitamin D3 called cholecalciferol is synthesized from a
derivative of the steroid cholesterol in the skin. The liver converts cholecalciferol to calcidiol,
 62

which is then converted to calcitriol (the active chemical form of the vitamin) in the kidneys.
Vitamin D is essential for normal absorption of calcium and phosphorous, which are required
for healthy bones. The absence of sun exposure can lead to a lack of vitamin D in the body,
leading to a condition called rickets, a painful condition in children where the bones are
misshapen due to a lack of calcium, causing bowleggedness. Elderly individuals who suffer
from vitamin D deficiency can develop a condition called osteomalacia, a softening of the
bones. In present day society, vitamin D is added as a supplement to many foods, including
milk and orange juice, compensating for the need for sun exposure.

In addition to its essential role in bone health, vitamin D is essential for general immunity
against bacterial, viral, and fungal infections. Recent studies are also finding a link between
insufficient vitamin D and cancer.

Suggested Link:

Watch this 3D Integumentary System tutorial. This is an interactive link.

http://www.innerbody.com/anatomy/integumentary

Summary of the Lesson:

Integumentary Structures

The skin and its associated structures, hair, sweat glands and nails make up the
integumentary system.

Thick skin

1. Stratum basale (also known as S. germinativum): A single layer of cuboidal to columnar

cells resting on and separated from the underlying dermis by a basal lamina. Mitotic
figures occur in this layer.
2. Stratum spinosum: Several layers in thickness. In reduced light, the cells appear
interconnected by “spinous” processes.
3. Stratum granulosum: A few layers of cells that are characterized by numerous, dense,
basophilic granules. These are keratohyaline and membrane coating granules.
4. Stratum corneum: Note the striking change in cellular morphology. The cells are
flattened, devoid of nuclei or cytoplasmic granules, and filled with mature keratin
however, nuclei are still present in many cells of this layer, which are not normal.
 63

Because of differential dye penetration, the staining of the stratum corneum is variable
and unpredictable. Sectioning artifacts are common.

The principal cell type of the epidermis is termed a keratinocyte and you will see this term
used as a general descriptor for the epithelial cell found in any stratified squamous
epithelium. Note the absence of blood vessels in the epidermis. Nourishment is obtained by
diffusion from capillaries in the underlying dermis.

The interface of the epidermis and dermis is uneven. A pattern of ridges and grooves on the
deep surface of the epidermis fit a complementary pattern of corrugations of the underlying
dermis. The projections of the dermis are called dermal papillae and those of the epidermis,
epidermal ridges (pegs), because of their appearance in vertical sections of the skin.
However, these terms are not always accurately descriptive of the three dimensional
configuration of the region of interdigitation. With low power, identify the epidermal ridges
and dermal papillae.

Thin Skin

The epidermis in thin skin is much thinner and simpler in structure. Each stratum is thinner and
the stratum granulosum may be absent. Melanocytes #105-1 melanocytes (derived from
neural crest cells)capable of producing the pigment melanin are numerous in the deeper
(toward the base) layers of the epidermis. They can be identified by the presence of a
nucleus surrounded by a clear space. The cells with brownish pigments are actually
keratinocytes that have received melanin granules from the melanocytes by pigment
donation. It is not difficult to tell which sample is from which individual. Note the presence of
portions of hair follicles and sebaceous glands in the dermis.

Peripheral Mechanosensory Receptors

Meissner’s Corpuscles

Meissner’s corpuscles are touch receptors that are responsive to low-frequency stimuli and
are usually associated with hairless skin of the lips and palmar and plantar surfaces,
particularly those of the fingers and toes. Generally, these receptors are tapered cylinders
located in the undulating connective tissue just underneath the stratified epithelium of the
skin. The long axis of the cylinder is perpendicular to that of the overlying epidermis and is
usually about 150 um long and is usually tucked within extensions of the underlying
 64

connective tissue dermis (called “dermal papillae”) that project into the underside of the
epidermis. Within these receptors, one or two nonmyelinated endings of myelinated nerve
fibers follow a spiral path through the corpuscle. The fibers are accompanied by
ensheathing Schwann cells, the nuclei of which are flattened and stacked on top of each
other giving the corpuscle its characteristic irregular, lamellar appearance.

Pacinian Corpuscles

Pacinian corpuscles, ovoid structures up to 1 mm in diameter found in the dermis and

hypodermis of the skin and also in the connective tissue associated with bones, joints, and
internal organs. They respond primarily to pressure and vibration and are composed of a
myelinated nerve ending surrounded by a capsule. The nerve enters the capsule at one
pole (which might be out of the plane of section and therefore not visible) with its myelin
sheath intact but then it is quickly lost. The unmyelinated portion of the axon extends toward
the opposite pole from which it entered and its length is covered by flattened Schwann cell
lamellae that form the inner core of the corpuscle. The remaining bulk of the capsule, or
outer core, is comprised of a series of concentric, onionlike lamellae with each layer
separated by an extracellular fluid similar to lymph. Each lamella is composed of flattened
Schwann cells and endoneurial fibroblasts. In addition the fluid between each layer,
delicate collagen fibers may be present as well as occasional capillaries. Displacement of
the lamellae by pressure or vibrations effectively causes depolarization of the axon, which
sends the signal to the central nervous system.

Scalp and Hair

Underneath the thin epidermis, there are numerous circular to oblong structures with a
hollow or yellow-brown center and surrounding cellular layers. The keratinized component of
the hair occupies the central cavity of the follicle, and appears yellow-brown when present.
However, the hair often falls out during tissue processing, in which case the central cavity will
appear to be occupied by just empty space. The surrounding layers of clear cells form the
external root sheath of the hair, which is a down growth of the epidermis. In fact, in cases
where most of the epidermis is removed (such as severe abrasions or when taking skin graft),
it is cells of the external root sheath that will divide and spread over the exposed surface to
re-establish the epidermis.
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Sweat Glands

Numerous coiled eccrine sweat glands are located at the junction of dermis and
hypodermis. Distinguish between the secretory portions of the gland (secretory cells and
myoepithelial cells; the latter are best seen in the apocrine gland, and the stratified (two
layers) cuboidal epithelial cell-lined duct. Where do the ducts empty?? Answer: Ducts of
eccrine sweat glands empty onto the surface of the skin. Apocrine glands, however, empty
into hair follicles in the axillary, areolar and perianal regions. How does sweat get to the
surface? Answer: Eccrine sweat glands have ducts that lead to the surface of the skin.
Eccrine sweat glands are a type of merocrine gland (a gland that releases its product by
exocytosis). The secretory cells of the eccrine gland are surrounded by myoepithelial cells
which can contract to propel its secretions to the surface. Apocrine sweat glands (apocrine
being a misnomer, they are truly a merocrine gland, not an apocrine gland) function in the
same way, however, their ducts lead to hair follicles, not directly to the skin surface.

Apocrine Glands

Look in the deep dermis or hypodermis for secretory tubules with a wide lumen. The
epithelium is cuboidal to columnar with distinct apical secretory granules. What should be
apparent in your section is the apical “blebbing” of the secretory cells that was responsible
for histologists originally designating these cells as “apocrine” secretory cells, although we
now know the cells actually secrete in a MEROCRINE manner just like eccrine sweat glands.
The “apocrine” sweat glands, present in the axillary, areolar, and anal regions, represent the
second type of sweat glands. These glands produce a viscous secretion which acquires a
distinctive odor as a result of bacterial decomposition.

Instead you see darker pink-stained basement membrane between the projections of
myoepithelial cells. The relatively great number of these cells in sweat glands (and
mammary glands) can only be appreciated by studying such tangential cuts.

Please also look for apocrine sweat gland ducts in these slides. They look similar to eccrine
gland ducts described above (small diameter and small lumen with a stratified cuboidal
epithelium). Similarly, they also lack lack myoepithelial cells. Make sure you can discriminate
the ductal portion of apocrine sweat grlands from their secretory portion.
 66

Electron Micrographs

Review the layering of the epidermis. Remember that there is a continuous process of cell
migration and differentiation from the basal cell layer to the most superficial layer. Review
the features of the epidermal-dermal junction.

Observe the abundance of tonofibrils (= keratin intermediate filaments) and ribosomes and
the small number of mitochondria. Note the absence of Golgi apparatus and granular
endoplasmic reticulum. Epidermal cells do contain these organelles but in reduced amount,
as the bulk of synthesis is for structural proteins, not exportable ones. What is the function of
the numerous desmosomes? The function of the tonofibrils?

Note the keratohyaline granules in the cells of the stratum granulosum. The keratinization
process is completed in the cell layers above the stratum granulosum, indicated by the
disappearance of nuclei and cell organelles. Note that the cornified cells are of variable
appearance (some “dark” and some “light”) a reflection of the tissue processing rather than
of a functional difference.
 67

Lesson 4: Digestive System

The digestive system is continually at work, yet people seldom appreciate the complex tasks
it performs in a choreographed biologic symphony. Consider what happens when you eat
an apple. Of course, you enjoy the apple’s taste as you chew it, but in the hours that follow,
unless something goes amiss and you get a stomachache, you don’t notice that your
digestive system is working. You may be taking a walk or studying or sleeping, having
forgotten all about the apple, but your stomach and intestines are busy digesting it and
absorbing its vitamins and other nutrients. By the time any waste material is excreted, the
body has appropriated all it can use from the apple. In short, whether you pay attention or
not, the organs of the digestive system perform their specific functions, allowing you to use
the food you eat to keep you going. This chapter examines the structure and functions of
these organs, and explores the mechanics and chemistry of the digestive processes.

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
• List and describe the functional anatomy of the organs and accessory organs of the
digestive system;
• Discuss the processes and control of ingestion, propulsion, mechanical digestion,
chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation; and
• Discuss the roles of the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder in digestion.
Discussion:

The digestive system includes the digestive tract and its accessory organs,
which process food into molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells of the
body. Food is broken down, bit by bit, until the molecules are small enough to be absorbed
and the waste products are eliminated. The digestive tract, also called the alimentary
canal or gastrointestinal (GI) tract, consists of a long continuous tube that extends from
the mouth to the anus. It includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
and large intestine. The tongue and teeth are accessory structures located in the mouth. The
salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are major accessory organs that have a role
in digestion. These organs secrete fluids into the digestive tract.

Food undergoes three types of processes in the body:

 Digestion
 Absorption
 Elimination
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Digestion and absorption occur in the digestive tract. After the nutrients are absorbed, they
are available to all cells in the body and are utilized by the body cells in metabolism.

The digestive system prepares nutrients for utilization by body cells through six activities, or
functions.

Ingestion
The first activity of the digestive system is to take in food through the mouth. This process,
called ingestion, has to take place before anything else can happen.

Mechanical Digestion
The large pieces of food that are ingested have to be broken into smaller particles that can
be acted upon by various enzymes. This is mechanical digestion, which begins in the mouth
with chewing or mastication and continues with churning and mixing actions in the stomach.

Chemical Digestion
The complex molecules of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are transformed by chemical
digestion into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells. Chemical
digestion, through a process called hydrolysis, uses water and digestive enzymes to break
down the complex molecules. Digestive enzymes speed up the hydrolysis process, which is
otherwise very slow.

Movements
After ingestion and mastication, the food particles move from the mouth into the pharynx,
then into the esophagus. This movement is deglutition, or swallowing. Mixing movements
occur in the stomach as a result of smooth muscle contraction. These repetitive contractions
usually occur in small segments of the digestive tract and mix the food particles with
enzymes and other fluids. The movements that propel the food particles through the
digestive tract are called peristalsis. These are rhythmic waves of contractions that move the
food particles through the various regions in which mechanical and chemical digestion
takes place.

Absorption
The simple molecules that result from chemical digestion pass through cell membranes of the
lining in the small intestine into the blood or lymph capillaries. This process is called
absorption.
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Elimination
The food molecules that cannot be digested or absorbed need to be eliminated from the
body. The removal of indigestible wastes through the anus, in the form of feces,
is defecation or elimination.

The long continuous tube that is the digestive tract is about 9 meters in length. It opens to the
outside at both ends, through the mouth at one end and through the anus at the other.
Although there are variations in each region, the basic structure of the wall is the same
throughout the entire length of the tube.

The wall of the digestive tract has four layers or tunics:

 Mucosa
 Submucosa
 Muscular layer
 Serous layer or serosa

The mucosa, or mucous membrane layer, is the innermost tunic of the wall. It lines
the lumen of the digestive tract. The mucosa consists of epithelium, an underlying
loose connective tissue layer called lamina propria, and a thin layer of smooth muscle called
the muscularis mucosa. In certain regions, the mucosa develops folds that increase the
surface area. Certain cells in the mucosa secrete mucus, digestive enzymes, and hormones.
Ducts from other glands pass through the mucosa to the lumen. In the mouth and anus,
where thickness for protection against abrasion is needed, the epithelium is stratified
squamous tissue. The stomach and intestines have a thin simple columnar epithelial layer for
secretion and absorption.

The submucosa is a thick layer of loose connective tissue that surrounds the mucosa. This
layer also contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves. Glands may be embedded
in this layer.

The smooth muscle responsible for movements of the digestive tract is arranged in two
layers, an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer. The myenteric plexus is
between the two muscle layers.

Above the diaphragm, the outermost layer of the digestive tract is a connective tissue
called adventitia. Below the diaphragm, it is called serosa.
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At its simplest, the digestive system is a tube running from mouth to anus. Its chief goal is to
break down huge macromolecules (proteins, fats and starch), which cannot be absorbed
intact, into smaller molecules (amino acids, fatty acids and glucose) that can be absorbed
across the wall of the tube, and into the circulatory system for dissemination throughout the
body.

Regions of the digestive system can be divided into two main parts: the
alimentary tract and accessory organs. The alimentary tract of the digestive system is
composed of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large
intestines, rectum and anus. Associated with the alimentary tract are the following accessory
organs: salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

To learn more about the regions of the digestive system, use the hyperlinks listed below to
branch into a specific topic.

1. Alimentary Tract of the Digestive System

o Mouth
o Pharynx & Esophagus
o Stomach
o Small and Large Intestine
2. Accessory Organs of the Digestive System
o Salivary Glands
o Liver
o Gallbladder
o Pancreas
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Mouth

The mouth, or oral cavity, is the first part of the digestive tract. It is adapted to receive food
by ingestion, break it into small particles by mastication, and mix it with saliva. The lips,
cheeks, and palate form the boundaries. The oral cavity contains the teeth and tongue and
receives the secretions from the salivary glands.

Lips and Cheeks

The lips and cheeks help hold food in the mouth and keep it in place for chewing. They are
also used in the formation of words for speech. The lips contain numerous sensory receptors
that are useful for judging the temperature and texture of foods.

Palate
The palate is the roof of the oral cavity. It separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity.
The anterior portion, the hard palate, is supported by bone. The posterior portion, the soft
palate, is skeletal muscle and connective tissue. Posteriorly, the soft palate ends in a
projection called the uvula. During swallowing, the soft palate and uvula move upward to
direct food away from the nasal cavity and into the oropharynx.

Tongue
The tongue manipulates food in the mouth and is used in speech. The surface is covered
with papillae that provide friction and contain the taste buds.
 72

Teeth
A complete set of deciduous (primary) teeth contains 20 teeth. There are 32 teeth in a
complete permanent (secondary) set. The shape of each tooth type corresponds to the
way it handles food.

Pharynx
Food is forced into the pharynx by the tongue. When food reaches the opening, sensory
receptors around the fauces respond and initiate an involuntary swallowing reflex. This reflex
action has several parts. The uvula is elevated to prevent food from entering
the nasopharynx. The epiglottis drops downward to prevent food from entering
the larynx and trachea in order to direct the food into the esophagus. Peristaltic movements
propel the food from the pharynx into the esophagus.

Esophagus
The esophagus is a collapsible muscular tube that serves as a passageway between the
pharynx and stomach. As it descends, it is posterior to the trachea and anterior to
the vertebral column. It passes through an opening in the diaphragm, called
the esophageal hiatus, and then empties into the stomach. The mucosa has glands that
secrete mucus to keep the lining moist and well lubricated to ease the passage of food.
Upper and lower esophageal sphincters control the movement of food into and out of the
esophagus. The lower esophageal sphincter is sometimes called the cardiac sphincter and
resides at the esophagogastric junction.

Stomach
The stomach, which receives food from the esophagus, is located in the upper
left quadrant of the abdomen. The stomach is divided into the fundic, cardiac, body, and
pyloric regions. The lesser and greater curvatures are on the right and left sides, respectively,
of the stomach.
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Gastric Secretions
The mucosal lining of the stomach is simple columnar epithelium with numerous tubular
gastric glands. The gastric glands open to the surface of the mucosa through tiny holes
called gastric pits. Four different types of cells make up the gastric glands:

 Mucous cells
 Parietal cells
 Chief cells
 Endocrine cells
The secretions of the exocrine gastric glands - composed of the mucous, parietal, and chief
cells - make up the gastric juice. The products of the endocrine cells are secreted directly
into the bloodstream and are not a part of the gastric juice. The endocrine cells secrete
the hormone gastrin, which functions in the regulation of gastric activity.

Regulation of Gastric Secretions

The regulation of gastric secretion is accomplished through neural and hormonal
mechanisms. Gastric juice is produced all the time but the amount varies subject to the
regulatory factors. Regulation of gastric secretions may be divided into cephalic, gastric,
and intestinal phases. Thoughts and smells of food start the cephalic phase of gastric
secretion; the presence of food in the stomach initiates the gastric phase; and the presence
of acid chyme in the small intestine begins the intestinal phase.
 74

Stomach Emptying
Relaxation of the pyloric sphincter allows chyme to pass from the stomach into the small
intestine. The rate of which this occurs depends on the nature of the chyme and the
receptivity of the small intestine.

Small Intestine
The small intestine extends from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve, where it empties
into the large intestine. The small intestine finishes the process of digestion, absorbs the
nutrients, and passes the residue on to the large intestine. The liver, gallbladder,
and pancreas are accessory organs of the digestive system that are closely associated with
the small intestine.

The small intestine is divided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The small intestine
follows the general structure of the digestive tract in that the wall has a mucosa with simple
columnar epithelium, submucosa, smooth muscle with inner circular and outer longitudinal
layers, and serosa. The absorptive surface area of the small intestine is increased by plicae
circulares, villi, and microvilli.

Exocrine cells in the mucosa of the small intestine secrete mucus, peptidase, sucrase,
maltase, lactase, lipase, and enterokinase. Endocrine cells
secrete cholecystokinin and secretin.

The most important factor for regulating secretions in the small intestine is the presence
of chyme. This is largely a local reflex action in response to chemical and mechanical
irritation from the chyme and in response to distention of the intestinal wall. This is a direct
reflex action, thus the greater the amount of chyme, the greater the secretion.
 75

Large Intestine
The large intestine is larger in diameter than the small intestine. It begins at the ileocecal
junction, where the ileum enters the large intestine, and ends at the anus. The large intestine
consists of the colon, rectum, and anal canal.

The wall of the large intestine has the same types of tissue that are found in other parts of the
digestive tract but there are some distinguishing characteristics. The mucosa has a large
number of goblet cells but does not have any villi. The longitudinal muscle layer, although
present, is incomplete. The longitudinal muscle is limited to three distinct bands, called teniae
coli, that run the entire length of the colon. Contraction of the teniae coli exerts pressure on
the wall and creates a series of pouches, called haustra, along the colon. Epiploic
appendages, pieces of fat-filled connective tissue, are attached to the outer surface of the
colon.

Unlike the small intestine, the large intestine produces no digestive enzymes. Chemical
digestion is completed in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine.
Functions of the large intestine include the absorption of water and electrolytes and the
elimination of feces.

Rectum and Anus

The rectum continues from the sigmoid colon to the anal canal and has a thick muscular
layer. It follows the curvature of the sacrum and is firmly attached to it by connective tissue.
The rectum ends about 5 cm below the tip of the coccyx, at the beginning of the anal
canal.
 76

The last 2 to 3 cm of the digestive tract is the anal canal, which continues from the rectum
and opens to the outside at the anus. The mucosa of the rectum is folded to form
longitudinal anal columns. The smooth muscle layer is thick and forms
the internal anal sphincter at the superior end of the anal canal. This sphincter is under
involuntary control. There is an external anal sphincter at the inferior end of the anal canal.
This sphincter is composed of skeletal muscle and is under voluntary control.

Accessory Organs
The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are not part of the digestive tract, but
they have a role in digestive activities and are considered accessory organs.

Salivary Glands
Three pairs of major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands) and
numerous smaller ones secrete saliva into the oral cavity, where it is mixed with food
during mastication. Saliva contains water, mucus, and enzyme amylase. Functions of saliva
include the following:

 It has a cleansing action on the teeth.

 It moistens and lubricates food during mastication and swallowing.
 It dissolves certain molecules so that food can be tasted.
 It begins the chemical digestion of starches through the action of amylase, which
breaks down polysaccharides into disaccharides.

Liver
The liver is located primarily in the right hypochondriac and epigastric regions of
the abdomen, just beneath the diaphragm. It is the largest gland in the body. On the
surface, the liver is divided into two major lobes and two smaller lobes. The functional units of
the liver are lobules with sinusoids that carry blood from the periphery to the central vein of
the lobule.

The liver receives blood from two sources. Freshly oxygenated blood is brought to the liver by
the common hepatic artery, a branch of the celiac trunk from the abdominal aorta. Blood
that is rich in nutrients from the digestive tract is carried to the liver by the hepatic portal vein.

The liver has a wide variety of functions and many of these are vital to life. Hepatocytes
perform most of the functions attributed to the liver, but the phagocytic Kupffer cells
that line the sinusoids are responsible for cleansing the blood.
 77

Liver functions include the following:

 secretion
 synthesis of bile salts
 synthesis of plasma protein
 storage
 detoxification
 excretion
 carbohyrate metabolism
 lipid metabolism
 protein metabolism
 filtering

Gallbladder
The gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac that is attached to the visceral surface of the liver by
the cystic duct. The principal function of the gallbladder is to serve as a storage reservoir
for bile. Bile is a yellowish-green fluid produced by liver cells. The main components of bile
are water, bile salts, bile pigments, and cholesterol.

Bile salts act as emulsifying agents in the digestion and absorption of fats. Cholesterol and
bile pigments from the breakdown of hemoglobin are excreted from the body in the bile.

Pancreas
The pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine functions. The endocrine portion consists of
the scattered Islets of Langerhans, which secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon into the
blood. The exocrine portion is the major part of the gland. It consists of pancreatic acinar
cells that secrete digestive enzymes into tiny ducts interwoven between the cells. Pancreatic
enzymes include anylase, trypsin, peptidase, and lipase. Pancreatic secretions are controlled
by the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin.

Suggested Link:
Watch this 3D Anatomical tutorial to better understand the Digestive System.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X3TAROotFfM
 78

Summary of the Lesson:

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Digestive System:

 The digestive tract includes the digestive tract and its accessory organs, which process
food into molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells of the body.
 Food undergoes three types of processes in the body: digestion, absorption, and
elimination.
 The digestive system prepares nutrients for utilization by body cells through six activities,
or functions: ingestion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, movements,
absorption, and elimination.
 The wall of the digestive tract has four layers or tunics: mucosa, submucosa, muscular
layer, and serous layer or serosa.
 Regions of the digestive system can be divided into two main parts: alimentary tract
and accessory organs.
 The alimentary tract of the digestive system is composed of the mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus.
 Associated with the alimentary tract are the following accessory organs: salivary
glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
 79

Lesson 5: Respiratory System

Hold your breath. Really! See how long you can hold your breath as you continue
reading…How long can you do it? Chances are you are feeling uncomfortable already. A
typical human cannot survive without breathing for more than 3 minutes, and even if you
wanted to hold your breath longer, your autonomic nervous system would take control. This
is because every cell in the body needs to run the oxidative stages of cellular respiration, the
process by which energy is produced in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). For
oxidative phosphorylation to occur, oxygen is used as a reactant and carbon dioxide is
released as a waste product. You may be surprised to learn that although oxygen is a critical
need for cells, it is actually the accumulation of carbon dioxide that primarily drives your
need to breathe. Carbon dioxide is exhaled, and oxygen is inhaled through the respiratory
system, which includes muscles to move air into and out of the lungs, passageways through
which air moves, and microscopic gas exchange surfaces covered by capillaries. The
circulatory system transports gases from the lungs to tissues throughout the body and vice
versa. A variety of diseases can affect the respiratory system, such as asthma, emphysema,
chronic obstruction pulmonary disorder (COPD), and lung cancer. All of these conditions
affect the gas exchange process and result in labored breathing and other difficulties.

Lesson Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 List the structures of the respiratory system;

 List the major functions of the respiratory system;
 Outline the forces that allow for air movement into and out of the lungs;
 Outline the process of gas exchange; and
 Summarize the process of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport within the respiratory
system.

Discussion:
When the respiratory system is mentioned, people generally think of breathing, but breathing
is only one of the activities of the respiratory system. The body cells need a continuous supply
of oxygen for the metabolic processes that are necessary to maintain life. The respiratory
system works with the circulatory system to provide this oxygen and to remove the waste
products of metabolism. It also helps to regulate pH of the blood.

Respiration is the sequence of events that results in the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the atmosphere and the body cells. Every 3 to 5 seconds, nerve impulses
 80

stimulate the breathing process, or ventilation, which moves air through a series of passages
into and out of the lungs. After this, there is an exchange of gases between the lungs and
the blood. This is called external respiration. The blood transports the gases to and from
the tissue cells. The exchange of gases between the blood and tissue cells is internal
respiration. Finally, the cells utilize the oxygen for their specific activities: this is called cellular
metabolism, or cellular respiration. Together, these activities constitute respiration.

Mechanics of Ventilation
Ventilation, or breathing, is the movement of air through the conducting passages between
the atmosphere and the lungs. The air moves through the passages because of pressure
gradients that are produced by contraction of the diaphragm and thoracic muscles.

Pulmonary ventilation
Pulmonary ventilation is commonly referred to as breathing. It is the process of air flowing into
the lungs during inspiration (inhalation) and out of the lungs during expiration (exhalation).
Air flows because of pressure differences between the atmosphere and the gases inside the
lungs.

Air, like other gases, flows from a region with higher pressure to a region with lower pressure.
Muscular breathing movements and recoil of elastic tissues create the changes in pressure
that result in ventilation. Pulmonary ventilation involves three different pressures:

 Atmospheric pressure
 Intraalveolar (intrapulmonary) pressure
 Intrapleural pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the air outside the body. Intraalveolar pressure is the
pressure inside the alveoli of the lungs. Intrapleural pressure is the pressure within the
pleural cavity. These three pressures are responsible for pulmonary ventilation.

Inspiration
Inspiration (inhalation) is the process of taking air into the lungs. It is the active phase of
ventilation because it is the result of muscle contraction. During inspiration, the diaphragm
contracts and the thoracic cavity increases in volume. This decreases the intraalveolar
pressure so that air flows into the lungs. Inspiration draws air into the lungs.
 81

Expiration
Expiration (exhalation) is the process of letting air out of the lungs during the breathing cycle.
During expiration, the relaxation of the diaphragm and elastic recoil of tissue decreases the
thoracic volume and increases the intraalveolar pressure. Expiration pushes air out of the
lungs.

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

Under normal conditions, the average adult takes 12 to 15 breaths a minute. A breath is one
complete respiratory cycle that consists of one inspiration and one expiration.

An instrument called a spirometer is used to measure the volume of air that moves into and
out of the lungs, and the process of taking the measurements is called spirometry.
Respiratory (pulmonary) volumes are an important aspect of pulmonary function testing
because they can provide information about the physical condition of the lungs.

Respiratory capacity (pulmonary capacity) is the sum of two or more volumes.

Factors such as age, sex, body build, and physical conditioning have an influence
on lung volumes and capacities. Lungs usually reach their maximum capacity in early
adulthood and decline with age after that.

Conducting Passages

The respiratory conducting passages are divided into the upper respiratory tract and the
lower respiratory tract. The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, pharynx, and larynx. The
lower respiratory tract consists of the trachea, bronchial tree, and lungs. These tracts open to
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the outside and are lined with mucous membranes. In some regions, the membrane has
hairs that help filter the air. Other regions may have cilia to propel mucus.

Click a menu item listed below to learn more about a component(s) of the conducting
passages.

 Nose & Nasal Cavities

 Pharynx
 Larynx & Trachea
 Bronchi, Bronchial Tree, & Lungs

Nose, Nasal Cavities, & Paranasal Sinuses

Nose & Nasal Cavities

The framework of the nose consists of bone and cartilage. Two small nasal bones and
extensions of the maxillae form the bridge of the nose, which is the bony portion. The
remainder of the framework is cartilage and is the flexible portion. Connective tissue and skin
cover the framework.

Air enters the nasal cavity from the

outside through two openings: the
nostrils or external nares. The openings
from the nasal cavity into
the pharynx are the internal nares. Nose
hairs at the entrance to the nose trap
large inhaled particles.

Paranasal Sinuses
Paranasal sinuses are air-filled cavities in the frontal, maxilae, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones.
These sinuses, which have the same names as the bones in which they are located, surround
the nasal cavity and open into it. They function to reduce the weight of the skull, to
produce mucus, and to influence voice quality by acting as resonating chambers.

Pharynx
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The pharynx, commonly called the throat, is a passageway that extends from the base of
the skull to the level of the sixth cervical vertebra. It serves both the respiratory and digestive
systems by receiving air from the nasal cavity and air, food, and water from the oral cavity.
Inferiorly, it opens into the larynx and esophagus. The pharynx is divided into three regions
according to location: the nasopharynx, the oropharynx, and
the laryngopharynx (hypopharynx).

The nasopharynx is the portion of the pharynx that

is posterior to the nasal cavity and extends inferiorly
to the uvula. The oropharynx is the portion of the
pharynx that is posterior to the oral cavity. The
most inferior portion of the pharynx is the
laryngopharynx that extends from the hyoid
bone down to the lower margin of the larynx.

The upper part of the pharynx (throat) lets only air

pass through. Lower parts permit air, foods, and fluids
to pass.

The pharyngeal, palatine, and lingual tonsils are located in the pharynx. They are also called
Waldereyer's Ring.

The retromolar trigone is the small area behind the wisdom teeth.

Larynx & Trachea

Larynx
The larynx, commonly called the voice
box or glottis, is the passageway for air
between the pharynx above and
the trachea below. It extends from the
fourth to the sixth vertebral levels. The
larynx is often divided into three sections:
sublarynx, larynx, and supralarynx. It is
formed by nine cartilages that are
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connected to each other by muscles and ligaments.

The larynx plays an essential role in human speech. During sound production, the vocal cords
close together and vibrate as air expelled from the lungs passes between them. The false
vocal cords have no role in sound production, but help close off the larynx when food is
swallowed.

The thyroid cartilage is the Adam's apple. The epiglottis acts like a trap door to keep food
and other particles from entering the larynx.

Trachea
The trachea, commonly called the windpipe, is the main airway to the lungs. It divides into
the right and left bronchi at the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra, channeling air to the right
or left lung.

The hyaline cartilage in the tracheal wall provides support and keeps the trachea from
collapsing. The posterior soft tissue allows for expansion of the esophagus, which is
immediately posterior to the trachea.

The mucous membrane that lines the trachea is ciliated pseudostratified

columnar epithelium similar to that in the nasal cavity and nasopharynx. Goblet
cells produce mucus that traps airborne particles and microorganisms, and the cilia propel
the mucus upward, where it is either swallowed or expelled.

Bronchi, Bronchial Tree, & Lungs

Bronchi and Bronchial Tree

In the mediastinum, at the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra, the trachea divides into the
right and left primary bronchi. The bronchi branch into smaller and smaller passageways until
they terminate in tiny air sacs called alveoli.

The cartilage and mucous membrane of the primary bronchi are similar to that in the
trachea. As the branching continues through the bronchial tree, the amount of hyaline
cartilage in the walls decreases until it is absent in the smallest bronchioles. As the cartilage
decreases, the amount of smooth muscle increases. The mucous membrane also undergoes
a transition from ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium to simple cuboidal epithelium
to simple squamous epithelium.
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The alveolar ducts and alveoli consist primarily of simple squamous epithelium, which permits
rapid diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Exchange of gases between the air in the
lungs and the blood in the capillaries occurs across the walls of the alveolar ducts and
alveoli.

Lungs
The two lungs, which contain all the
components of the bronchial tree
beyond the primary bronchi,
occupy most of the space in
the thoracic cavity. The lungs are
soft and spongy because they are
mostly air spaces surrounded by the
alveolar cells and
elastic connective tissue. They are
separated from each other by
the mediastinum, which contains
the heart. The only point of
attachment for each lung is at
the hilum, or root, on
the medial side. This is where the
bronchi, blood vessels, lymphatics,
and nerves enter the lungs.

The right lung is shorter, broader, and has a greater volume than the left lung. It is divided
into three lobes and each lobe is supplied by one of the secondary bronchi. The left lung is
longer and narrower than the right lung. It has an indentation, called the cardiac notch, on
its medial surface for the apex of the heart. The left lung has two lobes.

Each lung is enclosed by a double-layered serous membrane, called the pleura. The visceral
pleura is firmly attached to the surface of the lung. At the hilum, the visceral pleura is
continuous with the parietal pleura that lines the wall of the thorax. The small space between
the visceral and parietal pleurae is the pleural cavity. It contains a thin film of serous fluid that
is produced by the pleura. The fluid acts as a lubricant to reduce friction as the two layers
slide against each other, and it helps to hold the two layers together as the lungs inflate and
deflate.

Suggested Link:
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Watch this 3D Anatomical tutorial to learn more about the Respiratory System.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zd_e9gtDExM

Summary of the Lesson:

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Respiratory System:

 The entire process of respiration includes ventilation, external respiration, transport of

gases, internal respiration, and cellular respiration.
 The three pressures responsible for pulmonary ventilation are atmospheric pressure,
intraalveolar pressure, and intrapleural pressure.
 A spirometer is used to measure respiratory volumes and capacities. These
measurements provide useful information about the condition of the lungs.
 The frontal, maxillary, ethmoidal, and sphenoidal sinuses are air-filled cavities that
open into the nasal cavity.
 The pharynx, commonly called the throat, is a passageway that extends from the base
of the skull to the level of the sixth cervical vertebra.
 The larynx, commonly called the voice box, is the passageway for air between the
pharynx above and the trachea below.
 The trachea, commonly called the windpipe, is the main airway to the lungs.
 The trachea divides into the right and left primary bronchi, which branch into smaller
and smaller passageways until they terminate in tiny air sacs called alveoli.
 The two lungs contain all the components of the bronchial tree beyond the primary
bronchi.
 The right lung is shorter, broader, and is divided into three lobes.
 The left lung is longer, narrower, and is divided into two lobes.
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Lesson 6: Excretory (Urinary) System

The urinary system has roles you may be well aware of: cleansing the blood and ridding the
body of wastes probably come to mind. However, there are additional, equally important
functions played by the system. Take for example, regulation of pH, a function shared with
the lungs and the buffers in the blood. Additionally, the regulation of blood pressure is a role
shared with the heart and blood vessels. What about regulating the concentration of solutes
in the blood? Did you know that the kidney is important in determining the concentration of
red blood cells? Eighty-five percent of the erythropoietin (EPO) produced to stimulate red
blood cell production is produced in the kidneys. The kidneys also perform the final synthesis
step of vitamin D production, converting calcidiol to calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D.

If the kidneys fail, these functions are compromised or lost altogether, with devastating
effects on homeostasis. The affected individual might experience weakness, lethargy,
shortness of breath, anemia, widespread edema (swelling), metabolic acidosis, rising
potassium levels, heart arrhythmias, and more. Each of these functions is vital to your well-
being and survival. The urinary system, controlled by the nervous system, also stores urine until
a convenient time for disposal and then provides the anatomical structures to transport this
waste liquid to the outside of the body. Failure of nervous control or the anatomical
structures leading to a loss of control of urination results in a condition called incontinence.

This chapter will help you to understand the anatomy of the urinary system and how it
enables the physiologic functions critical to homeostasis. It is best to think of the kidney as a
regulator of plasma makeup rather than simply a urine producer. As you read each section,
ask yourself this question: “What happens if this does not work?” This question will help you to
understand how the urinary system maintains homeostasis and affects all the other systems
of the body and the quality of one’s life.

Lesson Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

• Describe the composition of urine;

• Label structures of the urinary system; and

• Characterize the roles of each of the parts of the urinary system.

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Discussion:
The principal function of the urinary system is to maintain the volume and composition of
body fluids within normal limits. One aspect of this function is to rid the body of waste
products that accumulate as a result of cellular metabolism, and, because of this, it is
sometimes referred to as the excretory system.

Although the urinary system has a major role in excretion, other organs contribute to the
excretory function. The lungs in the respiratory system excrete some waste products, such
as carbon dioxide and water. The skin is another excretory organ that rids the body of wastes
through the sweat glands. The liver and intestines excrete bile pigments that result from the
destruction of hemoglobin. The major task of excretion still belongs to the urinary system. If it
fails, the other organs cannot take over and compensate adequately.

The urinary system maintains an appropriate fluid volume by regulating the amount of water
that is excreted in the urine. Other aspects of its function include regulating the
concentrations of various electrolytes in the body fluids and maintaining normal pH of
the blood.

In addition to maintaining fluid homeostasis in the body, the urinary system controls red
blood cell production by secreting the hormone erythropoietin. The urinary system also plays
a role in maintaining normal blood pressure by secreting the enzyme renin.

The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys
form the urine and account for the other functions attributed to the urinary system. The
ureters carry the urine away from kidneys to the urinary bladder, which is a temporary
reservoir for the urine. The urethra is a tubular structure that carries the urine from the urinary
bladder to the outside.

 Kidneys
 Ureters
 Urinary Bladder
 Urethra

Kidneys
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The kidneys are the primary organs of the urinary system. The kidneys are the organs that filter
the blood, remove the wastes, and excrete the wastes in the urine. They are the organs that
perform the functions of the urinary system. The other components are accessory structures
to eliminate the urine from the body.

The paired kidneys are located between the twelfth thoracic and third lumbar vertebrae,
one on each side of the vertebral column. The right kidney usually is slightly lower than the
left because the liver displaces it downward. The kidneys, protected by the lower ribs, lie in
shallow depressions against the posterior abdominal wall and behind the parietal
peritoneum. This means they are retroperitoneal. Each kidney is held in place by connective
tissue, called renal fascia, and is surrounded by a thick layer of adipose tissue, called
perirenal fat, which helps to protect it. A tough, fibrous, connective tissue renal
capsule closely envelopes each kidney and provides support for the soft tissue that is inside.

In the adult, each kidney is approximately 3 cm thick, 6 cm wide, and 12 cm long. It is

roughly bean-shaped with an indentation, called the hilum, on the medial side. The hilum
leads to a large cavity, called the renal sinus, within the kidney. The ureter and renal vein
leave the kidney, and the renal artery enters the kidney at the hilum.

The outer, reddish region, next to the capsule,

is the renal cortex. This surrounds a darker
reddish-brown region called the renal medulla.
The renal medulla consists of a series of renal
pyramids, which appear striated because they
contain straight tubular structures and blood
vessels. The wide bases of the pyramids are
adjacent to the cortex and the pointed ends,
called renal papillae, are directed toward the
center of the kidney. Portions of the renal
cortex extend into the spaces between
adjacent pyramids to form renal columns. The
cortex and medulla make up
the parenchyma, or functional tissue, of the
kidney.

The central region of the kidney contains the renal pelvis, which is located in the renal sinus,
and is continuous with the ureter. The renal pelvis is a large cavity that collects the urine as it
is produced. The periphery of the renal pelvis is interrupted by cuplike projections called
calyces. A minor calyx surrounds the renal papillae of each pyramid and collects urine from
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that pyramid. Several minor calyces converge to form a major calyx. From the major
calyces, the urine flows into the renal pelvis; and from there, it flows into the ureter.

Each kidney contains over a million functional units, called nephrons, in the parenchyma
(cortex and medulla). A nephron has two parts: a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule.The
renal corpuscle consists of a cluster of capillaries, called the glomerulus, surrounded by a
double-layered epithelial cup, called the glomerular capsule. An afferent arteriole leads into
the renal corpuscle and an efferent arteriole leaves the renal corpuscle. Urine passes from
the nephrons into collecting ducts then into the minor calyces.

The juxtaglomerular apparatus, which monitors blood pressure and secretes renin, is formed
from modified cells in the afferent arteriole and the ascending limb of the nephron loop.

Ureters
Each ureter is a small tube, about 25 cm long, that
carries urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary
bladder. It descends from the renal pelvis, along
the posterior abdominal wall, which is behind
the parietal peritoneum, and enters the urinary
bladder on the posterior inferior surface.

The wall of the ureter consists of three layers. The

outer layer, the fibrous coat, is a supporting layer of
fibrous connective tissue. The middle layer, the
muscular coat, consists of the inner circular and
outer longitudinal smooth muscle. The main function
of this layer is peristalsis: to propel the urine. The inner layer, the mucosa, is transitional
epithelium that is continuous with the lining of the renal pelvis and the urinary bladder. This
layer secretes mucus, which coats and protects the surface of the cells.

Urinary Bladder
The urinary bladder is a temporary storage reservoir for urine. It is located in the
pelvic cavity, posterior to the symphysis pubis, and below the parietal peritoneum. The size
and shape of the urinary bladder varies with the amount of urine it contains and with the
pressure it receives from surrounding organs.

The inner lining of the urinary bladder is a mucous membrane of transitional epithelium that is
continuous with that in the ureters. When the bladder is empty, the mucosa has numerous
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folds called rugae. The rugae and transitional epithelium allow the bladder to expand as it
fills.

The second layer in the walls is the submucosa, which supports the mucous membrane. It is
composed of connective tissue with elastic fibers.

The next layer is the muscularis, which is composed of smooth muscle. The smooth muscle
fibers are interwoven in all directions and, collectively, these are called the detrusor
muscle. Contraction of this muscle expels urine from the bladder. On the superior surface,
the outer layer of the bladder wall is parietal peritoneum. In all other regions, the outer layer
is fibrous connective tissue.

There is a triangular area, called the trigone, formed by three openings in the floor of the
urinary bladder. Two of the openings are from the ureters and form the base of the trigone.
Small flaps of mucosa cover these openings and act as valves that allow urine to enter the
bladder but prevent it from backing up from the bladder into the ureters. The third opening,
at the apex of the trigone, is the opening into the urethra. A band of the detrusor muscle
encircles this opening to form the internal urethral sphincter.

Urethra
The final passageway for the flow of urine is the urethra, a thin-walled tube that conveys
urine from the floor of the urinary bladder to the outside. The opening to the outside is
the external urethral orifice. The mucosal lining of the urethra is transitional epithelium. The
wall also contains smooth muscle fibers and is supported by connective tissue.
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The internal urethral sphincter surrounds the beginning of the urethra, where it leaves the
urinary bladder. This sphincter is smooth (involuntary) muscle. Another sphincter, the external
urethral sphincter, is skeletal (voluntary) muscle and encircles the urethra where it goes
through the pelvic floor. These two sphincters control the flow of urine through the urethra.

In females, the urethra is short, only 3 to 4 cm (about 1.5 inches) long. The external urethral
orifice opens to the outside just anterior to the opening for the vagina.

In males, the urethra is much longer, about 20 cm (7 to 8 inches) in length, and transports
both urine and semen. The first part, next to the urinary bladder, passes through the prostate
gland and is called the prostatic urethra. The second part, a short region that penetrates the
pelvic floor and enters the penis, is called the membranous urethra. The third part, the
spongy urethra, is the longest region. This portion of the urethra extends the entire length of
the penis, and the external urethral orifice opens to the outside at the tip of the penis.

Suggested Link:
Watch this 3D Urinary System tutorial.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=805VoHIIQCs

Summary of the Lesson:

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Urinary System:

 The urinary system rids the body of waste materials, regulates fluid volume, maintains
electrolyte concentrations in body fluids, controls blood pH, secretes erythropoietin,
and renin.
 The components of the urinary system are the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra.
 The primary organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, which are located
retroperitoneally between the levels of the twelfth thoracic and third lumbar
vertebrae.
 The cortex and medulla make up the parenchyma of the kidney.
 The central region of the kidney is the renal pelvis, which collects the urine as it is
produced.
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 The functional unit of the kidney is a nephron, which consists of a renal corpuscle and
a renal tubule.
 The ureters transport urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
 The urinary bladder is a temporary storage reservoir for urine.
 The urethra is the final passageway for the flow of urine.
 The flow of urine through the urethra is controlled by an involuntary internal urethral
sphincter and voluntary external urethral sphincter.