Animal

Motor Systems

• Skeletal muscles: voluntary movements
o Consist of striated looking muscle fibres
o Attach to bones via tendons
o Each muscle cell (fiber) is innervated by one somatic motor neuron
1. Action potential in the motor neuron
2. Results in the release of acetylcholine (ACh) in to the synapse
between neuron and muscle (neuro-muscular junction)
3. Each molecule binds to ACh receptors on the muscle fibre cell
membrane
4. Muscle fibre depolarises and generates an action potential
5. Muscle fibre contracts
o One muscle contains main bundles of muscle fibres
§ Each muscle fibre contains many small strands called
myofibrils
§ Each myofibril is composed of repeating units called
sarcomeres
• Sarcomere: unit of contraction in skeletal and cardiac
muscles
• Sarcolemma: cell membrane of the sarcomere
o Action potentials are conduced along the
sarcolemma
o T-tubules: invaginations of sarcolemma (helps
rapidly send signal through entire sarcomere)
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum: within muscle fibre
o Intracellular Ca2+ store that is released in to the
cytosol in response to depolarisation
• Myofibrils contract in response to increase in cystolic
[Ca2+]
• Action potentials conducted in to T-tubules induce
calcium release by sarcoplasmic reticulum, Ca2+ flows
from sarcoplasmic reticulum in to cytosol, inducing
contraction of myofibrils
o Myofibrils are divided in to sarcomeres by 2
disks
§ Each sarcomere contains:
• Thin filaments (actin)
• Thick filaments (myosin)
• Z-disks (protein) at each end
§ During sarcomere contraction, degree of
overlap between thick and thin filament
increases. Myosin “walks” along actin
filament via ATP
 1. Start with myosin head firmly bound to actin
subunit of thin filament
2. ATP binds to myosin head; head releases from
thin filament
3. ATP hydrolysed, head pivots, binds to new actin
subunit (hydrolysed ATP à ADP + Pi, walk
forward)
4. Pi released, head pivots, moves filament
(powerstroke)
5. ADP released. Cycle ready to repeat.
• At rest, myosin binding sites on actin are blocked by
two protein: troponin and tropomyosin
o When Ca2+ levels rise, Ca2+ binds to troponin,
exposing myosin binding sites on actin, allowing
for sarcomere contraction



• Firing of somatic neurons leads to muscle contraction
o A given skeletal muscle includes a mixture of fibre types
§ Slow oxidative fibres: contract relatively slowly, can sustain
contraction over long periods of time
• Produce ATP via aerobic cellular respiration, high
myoglobin
§ Fast glycolic fibres: contract relatively quickly, fatigue
relatively quickly
• Produce ATP via glycolysis, followed by lactic acid
formation, low myoglobin
• Muscles pull against the skeletal system
o Vertebrate skeletons move via changes in joint angles, controlled
by antagonistic muscle groups

• Smooth Muscle: unbranched, tapered, and often organised in to thin sheets
o Lack sarcomeres (“smooth” appearance)
o Essential to the function of lungs, blood vessels, digestive system, ect
o Innervated by autonomic motor neurons, hence the “invoulantary”
action
§ Parasympathetic motor neurons: “rest and digest”, release ACh
to stimulate contractions
§ Sympathetic neurons: “fight or flight”, release
neurotransmitter norepinephrine; kidneys releases
epinephrine, inhibits muscle contraction
o Cardiac muscle: makes up wall of the heart. Contain sarcomeres and
are connected end to end by regions called intercalated discs, which
help electrical flow.
§ Like smooth muscle, movements are involuntary
§ Parasympathetic cardiac neurons: ACh slows the rate of
depolarisation of the cardiac cells à decreases heart rate
§ Sympathetic cardiac neurons: neurons release
norepinephrine, adrenal glans release epinephrine à
increases heart rate