Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Midterm Reviewer - Google Docs
Uploaded by
cpagente01Original Title
Copyright
Available Formats
Share this document
Did you find this document useful?
Is this content inappropriate?
Report this DocumentCopyright:
Available Formats
Midterm Reviewer - Google Docs
Uploaded by
cpagente01Copyright:
Available Formats
Anatomy and Physiology
roups of muscle cells
g
Chapter 7: Muscular system
Perimysium Each fascicle is surrounded by a
● C onsists of skin and accessory structures connective tissue covering
(hair, glands, nails) Endomysium Each skeletal muscle cell (fiber) is
● Integument - covering surrounded by a connective
● Protection, sensation, vitamin d production, tissue covering
temperature regulation, and excretion
● Can indicate physiological imbalances in the Muscle Fiber Structure
body
Types of Muscles Muscle Fiber s ingle cylindrical cell, with several
nuclei located at its periphery.
ttached to bones
a range in length 1 cm to 30 cm and
Skeletal striated are generally 0.15 mm in diameter.
voluntarily controlled Skeletal several nuclei that are located at
located in the heart Muscle Fiber the periphery of the fiber.
Cardiac striated Sarcolemma (cell membrane) has many
tubelike inward folds, called
involuntarily controlled
transverse tubules, or T tubules.
Located in blood vessels, hollow T Tubules occur at regular intervals along the
organs muscle fiber and extend into the
Smooth
Non-striated center of the muscle fiber.
involuntarily controlled associated with enlarged portions
of the smooth endoplasmic
Functions of the muscular system reticulum
.
1 ovement
M Sarcoplasmic smooth endoplasmic reticulum
2. Maintain posture Reticulum relatively high concentration of
3. Respiration Ca2+, which plays a major role in
4. Production of body heat muscle contraction.
5. Communication Sarcoplasm cytoplasm of a muscle fiber
6. Heart beat contains many bundles of protein
7. Contraction of organs and vessels filaments.
Myofibrils Bundles of protein filaments
Properties of Muscles consist of the myofilaments, actin
and myosin.
Contractility the ability of muscle to shorten
forcefully, or contract Sarcomere
Excitability the capacity of muscle to respond ● the basic structural and functional unit of a
to a stimulus skeletal muscle
Extensibility the ability to be stretched beyond it ● It is the smallest portion of a skeletal muscle
normal resting length and still be capable of contracting.
able to contract ● Z disks
Elasticity the ability of the muscle to recoil to - form a network of protein fibers that
its original resting length after it both serve as an anchor for actin
has been stretched myofilaments and separate one
sarcomere from the next.
keletal Muscle Structure
S ● A sarcomere extends from one Z disk to the
● associated connective tissue next Z disk.
● constitutes approximately 40% of body ● organization of actin and myosin
weight. myofilaments gives skeletal muscle its
● named because many of the muscles are striated appearance and gives it the ability
attached to the skeletal system. to contract.
● Some skeletal muscles attach to the skin or ● The myofilaments slide past each other,
connective tissue sheets. causing the sarcomeres to shorten.
● also called striated muscle because ● Each sarcomere consists of two
transverse bands, or striations, can be seen light-staining bands separated by a
in the muscle under the microscope. dark-staining band.
● Individual skeletal muscles, such as the ● I bands
biceps brachii, are complete organs, as a - Light bands
result of being composed of several tissues: - consist only of actin
muscle, nerve, and connective tissue. - that extends toward the center of the
Connective Tissue Coverings sarcomere to the ends of the myosin
myofilaments.
Epimysium ach skeletal muscle is
E ● A bands
surrounded by a connective tissue - Dark staining bands
sheath - that extend the length of the myosin
Fasicles skeletal muscle is subdivided into myofilaments.
Anatomy and Physiology
● A ctin and myosin myofilaments overlap for oncentration gradient and toward the
c
some distance on both ends of the A band; negative charges inside the cell.
this overlap causes the contraction. ● The entry of Na+ causes the inside of the
● Actin myofilaments are made up of three cell membrane to become more positive
components: than when the cell is at resting membrane
1. Actin potential.
2. Troponin ● depolarization.
3. Tropomyosin. - This increase in positive charge
● Troponin inside the cell membrane is called
- molecules have binding sites for ● threshold
Ca2+ - If the depolarization changes the
● Tropomyosin membrane potential to a value
- filaments block the myosin - an action potential is triggered.
myofilament binding sites on the ● An action potential is a rapid change in
actin myofilaments. charge across the cell membrane.
● Myosin myofilaments ● Depolarization during the action potential is
- thick myofilaments, resemble when the inside of the cell membrane
bundles of tiny golf clubs. becomes more positively charged than the
● Myosin heads outside of the cell membrane.
- have ATP binding sites, ATPase and ● Near the end of depolarization, the positive
attachment spots for action. charge causes gated Na+ channels to close
Excitability of Muscle Fibers and gated K+ channels to open.
● resting membrane potential ● Opening of gated K+ channels starts
- the electrical charge difference repolarization of the cell membrane.
across the cell membrane of an ● Repolarization is due to the exit of K+ from
unstimulated cell i the cell.
● Muscle cells (fibers) have a resting ● The outward diffusion of K+returns the cell
membrane potential, but can also perform to its resting membrane conditions and the
action potentials. action potential ends.
● The resting membrane potential is due to ● In a muscle fiber, an action potential results
the inside of the membrane being negatively in muscle contraction.
charged in comparison to the outside of the Depolarization
membrane being positively charged.
● change in charges
● Action potentials ● inside becomes more + and outside more –
- are due to the membrane having ● Na+ channels open
gated channels.
Resting Membrane Potential
● The resting membrane potential exists
because of:
○ The concentration of K+ being
higher on the inside of the cell
membrane and the concentration of
Na+ being higher on the outside
○ The presence of many negatively
charged molecules, such as Repolarization
proteins, inside the cell that are too N
● a+ channels close
large to exit the cell ● change back to resting potential
○ The presence of leak protein
channels in the membrane that are
more permeable to K+ than it is to
Na+
● Na+ tends to diffuse into the cell and K+
tends to diffuse out.
● In order to maintain the resting membrane
potential, the sodium-potassium pump
recreates the Na+ and K+ ion gradient by
pumping Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the
cell.
Nerve Supply
Action Potential
● To initiate a muscle contraction, the resting
membrane potential must be changed to an Motor Neuron erve cells stimulate muscle
n
action potential. cells.
● Changes in the resting membrane potential euromuscular
n A synapse where a the fiber
occur when gated cell membrane channels junction of a
open. nerve connects with muscle
● In a skeletal muscle fiber, a nerve impulse fiber.
triggers gated Na+ channels to open and synapse cell-to-cell junction between a
Na+ diffuses into the cell down its nerve cell and either another
Anatomy and Physiology
erve cell or an effector cell,
n 3. A cetylcholine binds to receptor sites on Na+
such as in a channels, Na+ channels open, and Na+
muscle or a gland. rushes into the postsynaptic terminal
motor unit group of muscle fibers that a (depolarization).
motor neuron stimulates. 4. Na+ causes sarcolemma and t-tubules to
resynaptic
p end of a neuron cell axon increase the permeability of sarcoplasmic
terminal fiber. reticulum which releases stored calcium.
synaptic cleft space between the 5. Ca2+ binds to troponin which is attached to
presynaptic terminal and actin.
postsynaptic membrane. 6. Ca2+ binding to troponin causes
ostsynaptic
p muscle fiber membrane tropomyosin to move, exposing attachment
membrane (sarcolemma). sites for myosin.
synaptic vesicle A vesicle in the presynaptic 7. Myosin heads bind to actin.
terminal that stores and 8. ATP is released from myosin heads and
releases neurotransmitter heads bend toward the center of sarcomere.
chemicals. 9. Bending forces actin to slide over myosin.
10.Acetylcholinesterase (enzyme breaks down
Neurotransmitters c
hemicals that stimulate or acetylcholine) is released, Na+ channels
inhibit postsynaptic cells. close, and muscle contraction stops.
Acetylcholine neurotransmitter that
Skeletal Muscle Excitation
stimulates skeletal muscles.
Neuromuscular Junction
Muscle Contraction
1. A n action potential travels down the motor
neuron to the presynaptic terminal causing
Ca2+ channels to open.
2. Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to release
acetylcholine into synaptic cleft.
Anatomy and Physiology
- the time during which the
muscle contracts
3. relaxation phase
- the time during which the
muscle relaxes.
Summation and Recruitment
● S ummation- individual muscles contract
more forcefully.
ATP and Muscle Contractions ● Tetanus- a sustained contraction that
● E nergy for muscle contractions is supplied occurs when the frequency of stimulation is
by ATP so rapid that no relaxation occurs.
● Energy is released as ATP → ADP + P ● Recruitment- the stimulation of several
● ATP is stored in myosin heads motor units.
● ATP help form cross-bridge formation
between myosin and actin Multiple-Wave Summation
● New ATP must bind to myosin before
cross-bridge is released
● Rigor mortis will occur when a person dies
and no ATP is available to release
cross-bridges
ATP Breakdown and Cross-Bridge Movement
Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types
● A muscle has a blend of types, with one
type dominating. Humans have both types
of fibers
● The distribution of fibers is genetically
determined
Slow twitch fibers
● contract slowly
● fatigue slowly
● have a considerable amount of myoglobin
● use aerobic respiration
● are dark in color
● used by long distance runners
Fast Twitch fibers
● ontract quickly
c
● fatigue quickly
● use anaerobic respiration
● energy from glycogen
● light color
● used by sprinters
Energy for Muscle Contractions
● M uscle fibers are very energy-demanding
cells whether at rest or during any form of
Muscle Twitch
exercise.
● A muscle twitch is a single contraction of a
● This energy comes from either aerobic (with
muscle fiber in response to a stimulus.
O2) or anaerobic (without O2) ATP
● A muscle twitch has three phases:
production
1. latent phase
● ATP is derived from four processes in
- time between the application
skeletal muscle.
of a stimulus
1. Aerobic production of ATP during most
- beginning of contraction
exercise and normal conditions.
2. contraction phase
Anatomy and Physiology
2. A naerobic production of ATP during Cardiac Muscle
intensive short-term work ● Cardiac muscle cells
3. Conversion of a molecule called creatine - long, striated, and branching
phosphate to ATP - with usually only one nucleus per
4. Conversion of two ADP to one ATP and one cell.
AMP (adenosine monophosphate) during ● Cardiac muscle is striated as a result of the
heavy exercise sarcomere arrangement.
● Cardiac muscle contraction is autorhythmic.
Muscle Fatigue ● Cardiac muscle cells are connected to one
● F atigue- a temporary state of reduced work another by specialized structures that
capacity. include desmosomes and gap junctions
● Without fatigue- muscle fibers would be calledintercalated disks.
worked to the point of structural damage to ● Cardiac muscle cells function as a single
them and their supportive tissues. unit in that action potential in one cardiac
● Mechanisms of fatigue include: muscle cell can stimulate action potentials
○ Acidosis and ATP depletion due to in adjacent cells.
either an increased ATP
consumption or a decreased ATP Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
production
○ Oxidative stress, which is Tendon onnects skeletal muscle to
c
characterized by the buildup of bone.
excess reactive oxygen species poneuroses
A broad, sheetlike tendons.
(ROS; free radicals) Retinaculum band of connective tissue that
○ Local inflammatory reactions holds down the tendons at
each wrist and ankle.
Types of Contractions Origin Skeletal muscle attachments
have an origin and an
isometric n increase in muscle
a insertion, with the origin being
contraction tension, but no change in the attachment at the least
length. mobile location.
isotonic has a change in muscle Insertion the end of the muscle
contraction length with no change in attached to the
tension. bone undergoing the greatest
oncentric
C Isotonic contractions in which movement.
contractions muscle tension increases as Belly part of the muscle between
the muscle shortens. the origin and the insertion
ccentric
E isotonic contractions in which agonists group of muscles working
contractions tension is maintained in a together
muscle, but the opposing Antagonists muscle or group of muscles
resistance causes the muscle that oppose muscle actions
to lengthen.
Muscle Tone
● T he constant tension produced by body
muscles over long periods of time.
● Responsible for keeping the back and legs
straight, the head in an upright position, and
the abdomen from bulging.
● Muscle tone depends on a small percentage
of all the motor units in a muscle being
stimulated at any point in time, causing their
muscle fibers to contract tetanically and out
of phase with one another.
Smooth Muscle
● Smooth muscle cells
- non-striated small
- spindle-shaped muscle cells
- usually with one nucleus per cell.
● The myofilaments are not organized into
sarcomeres.
● The cells comprise organs controlled
involuntarily, except the heart.
● Neurotransmitter substances, hormones,
and other substances can stimulate smooth
muscle.
Anatomy and Physiology
Muscle Attachment
Nomenclature
1. L ocation– a pectoralis muscle is located in
the chest.
2. Size– the size could be large or small,
short or long.
3. Shape- the shape could be triangular,
quadrate, rectangular, or round.
4. Orientation of fascicles– fascicles could
run straight (rectus) or at an angle (oblique).
5. Origin and insertion- The
sternocleidomastoid has its origin on the
sternum and clavicle and its insertion on the
mastoid process of the temporal bone.
6. Number of heads- A biceps muscle has
two heads (origins), and a triceps muscle
has three heads (origins).
7. Function- Abductors and adductors are the
muscles that cause abduction and
adduction movements.
uscles of Mastication
M
● Temporalis
Masseter
●
● Pterygoids (two pairs)
Muscles of Facial Expression And Mastication
Anatomy and Physiology
Tongue and Swallowing Muscles
Abdominal Wall Muscles
Rectus abdominis c enter of abdomen
compresses abdomen
External abdominal sides of abdomen
oblique compresses abdomen
Internal abdominal compresses abdomen
oblique
Transverse compresses abdomen
abdominis
Deep Neck and Back Muscles
Upper Scapular and Limb Muscles
Trapezius houlders and upper back
s
extends neck and head
Pectoralis major Chest
elevates ribs
Serratus anterior between ribs
elevates ribs
Deltoid Shoulder
abductor or upper limbs
Triceps brachii 3 heads
extends elbow
Biceps brachii “flexing muscle”
flexes elbow and shoulder
horacic Muscle
T rachialis
B flexes elbow
● External intercostals: Latissimus dorsi lower back
- elevate ribs for inspiration extends shoulder
Internal intercostals:
●
- depress ribs during forced expiration
● Diaphragm:
- moves during quiet breathing
Muscles of the Thorax
Anatomy and Physiology
Arm Muscles
Muscles of Hips and Thighs
Iliopsoas flexes hip
Gluteus maximus buttocks
extends hip and abducts thigh
Gluteus medius Hip
abducts and rotates thigh
Muscles of the Upper Leg
rectus femoris front of thigh
extends knee and flexes hip
astus lateralis
v extends knee
vastus medialis extends knee
vastus intermedius extends knee
Gracilis adducts thigh and flexes knee
Biceps femoris Hamstring
Forearm Muscles Semimembranosus back of thigh
● lexor longus
F Semitendinosus flexes knee, rotates leg,
● Flexor carpi radialis extends hip
● Flexor carpi ulnaris
● Flexor digitorum profundus Muscles of the Hip and Thigh
● Flexor digitorum superficialis
● Pronator
● Brachioradialis
● Extensor carpi radialis brevis
Muscles of the Forearm
Pelvic Floor Muscles
● evator ani
L
● Ischiocavernosus
● Bulbospongiosus
● Deep transverse perineal
● Superficial transverse perineal
Anatomy and Physiology
Muscles of the Lower Leg ensory division /
s the PNS conducts action
afferent (toward) potentials from sensory
Tibialis anterior front of lower leg division receptors to the CNS
inverts foot Sensory neurons The neurons that transmit
Gastrocnemius calf action potentials from the
flexes foot and leg periphery to the CNS
Soleus attaches to ankle otor division
m PNS conducts action
flexes foot efferent (away) potentials from the CNS to
division effector organs, such as
muscles and glands.
Motor Neurons neurons that transmit action
potentials from the CNS
toward the periphery
Motor Division
Efferent division of PNS
●
Somatic Nervous transmits action potentials
system (SNS) from the CNS to skeletal
muscles
Autonomic transmits action potentials
Nervous system from the CNS to cardiac
(ANS) muscle, smooth muscle, and
glands.
sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions
Enteric nervous unique subdivision of the
system (ENS) peripheral nervous system.
has both sensory and motor
neurons contained wholly
within the digestive tract.
can function without input
from the CNS or other parts
of the PNS, although it is
normally integrated with the
CNS by sensory neurons and
ANS motor neurons.
Cells of the nervous system
Chapter 8: Nervous system
C
● ommunication system
● Receiving signals from
● Send commands to different areas of the
body
Major Functions
1. Receiving sensory input
2. Integrating information
3. Controlling muscles and glands
4. Maintaining homeostasis
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity
Divisions of the nervous system
Central Nervous System (CNS)
B
● rain
● Spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
● ll nervous tissue outside the CNS
A
● Nerves
● Ganglia
● This is communication link between the
CNS and the various part of the body
● Carries information about the different
tissues to the CNS
carries commands from the CNS that alter
●
body activities.
Anatomy and Physiology
located in some sensory organs,
eurons / nerve receive stimuli, conduct action
N such as in the retina of the eye
cells potentials, and transmit signals and in the nasal cavity.
to other neurons or effector Pseudo-unipolarhave a single process extending
organs. neurons from the cell body.
There are three parts to a process divides into two
neuron: processes a short distance from
1. cell body the cell body.
2. Dendrites One process extends to the
3. axons. periphery, and the other extends
nucleus of the source of information for gene to the CNS. The two extensions
neuron expression. function as a single axon with
Extensive rough endoplasmic small, dendrite-like sensory
reticulum (rough ER), a Golgi receptors at the periphery. The
apparatus, and mitochondria axon receives sensory
surround the nucleus. information at the periphery and
Large numbers of neurofilaments transmits that information in the
(intermediate filaments) and form of action potentials to the
microtubules organize the CNS
cytoplasm into distinct areas.
Cell Body contains a single nucleus
Dendrites Short, often highly branching
cytoplasmic extensions that are
tapered from their bases at the
neuron cell body to their tips.
Most dendrites are extensions of
the neuron cell body
dendrite like structures also
project from the peripheral ends
of some sensory axons.
receive information from other
neurons or from sensory Glial Cells
receptors and transmit the
information toward the neuron
lial Cells /
G rimarily supportive cells of the
p
cell body.
neuroglia CNS and PNS
Axon single long cell process
cells do not conduct action
extending from the neuron cell
potentials.
body.
far more numerous than
uniform diameter and may vary
neurons.
in length from a few millimeters
retain the ability to divide,
to more than a meter
whereas neurons do not.
Axons of sensory neurons
Types
conduct action potentials
towards the CNS, and axons of Astrocytes serve as the major supporting
motor neurons conduct action cells in theCNS.
potentials away from the CNS can stimulate or inhibit the
conduct action poten-tials from signal-ing activity of nearby
one part of the brain or spinal neurons.
cord to another part. participate with the blood
Axon hillock area where the axon leaves the vessel endothelium to form a
neu-ron cell body permeability barrier (blood-brain
barrier) - between the blood
Collateral Axonsaxon may remain unbranched or
and the CNS
may branch to form
help limit damage to neural
myelin sheath highly specialized insulating
tissue
layer of cells
Repair process can form a scar
Surrounding the axon
that blocks regeneration of
damaged axons.
Types of Neurons
lood Brain
B The astrocytes participate with
Barrier the blood vessel endothelium to
ultipolar
M ave many dendrites
h
form a permeability barrier
neurons single axon. between the blood and the
Most of the neurons within the CNS.
CNS and nearly all motor pendymal
E line the fluid-filled cavities
neurons are multipolar. cells (ventricles and canals) within
ipolar neurons Have two process-es
B the CNS.
one dendrite and one axon.
Anatomy and Physiology
roduce cerebrospinal fluid,
p White matter onsists of bundles of parallel
c
and others, with cilia on the axons with their myelin sheaths,
surface, help move the which are whitish in color
cerebrospinal fluid through the erve tracts /
N White matter of the CNS
CNS. conduction Propagate action potentials
Microglia act as immune cells of the pathways from one area of the CNS to
CNS. They help protect the another
brain by removing bacteria and Nerves The formed White matter of the
cell debris PNS consists of bundles of
Oligodendrocytesprovide an insulating material axons and associated
(CNS) and that surrounds axons connective tissue
Schwann cells the glial cells in PNS provide
(PNS) insulating material around ELECTRICAL SIGNALS AND
axons. NEURAL PATHWAYS
Myelin Sheaths esting Membrane Potential
R
● It is an unstimulated (or resting) cell, the
Myelin sheaths pecialized layers that wrap
s uneven charge distribution
around the axons of some ● The inside of most cell membranes is
neurons. negatively charged compared to the outside
myelinated axonsThese myelin sheaths are of the cell membrane, which is positively
formed by the cell charged
processes of glial cells; ● Polarized - uneven distribution of charge
specifically, myelin sheaths are means the cell membrane
formed by oligodendrocytes in ● Outside of the cell - Positive pole
the CNS and Schwann cells in ● Inside the cell - negative
the PNS ● Potential - a small voltage difference, can
myelin an excellent insulator that be measured across the resting cell
prevents almost all ion membrane.
movement across the cell ● ions cannot move freely across the cell
membrane. membrane
nodes of Ranvier Gaps in the myelin sheath Factors 1. a higher concentration
occur about every millimeter of K+ immediately inside
between the oligodendrocyte the cell membrane, and
segments or between individual 2. a higher concentration
Schwann cells. of Na+ immediately
Ion movement occur outside the cell
Myelination of an increases the speed and membrane
axon efficiency of action potential 3. greater permeability of
generation along the axon. the cell membrane to K+
Unmyelinated lack the myelin sheaths than to Na+
axons these axons rest in Leak Channels Always open
indentations of the ions can “leak” across the
oligodendrocytes in the CNS membrane down their
and the Schwann cells in the concentration gradient.
PNS When a cell is at rest, the
axons rest in indentations of the oligodendrocytes membrane potential is
in the CNS and the Schwann cells in the PNS established by ions diffusing
A typical small nerve, which consists of axons of through leak channels
multiple neurons, usually contains more Gated Channels closed until opened by specific
unmyelinated axons than myelinated axons signals
Chemically gated opened by neurotransmitters or
Organization of nervous tissue channels other chemicals
● B oth the CNS and the PNS contain areas of voltage-gated opened by a change in
gray matter and areas of white matter. channel membrane potential
● CNS & PNS contains gray matter sodium-potassiu required to maintain the greater
Gray matter consists of groups of neuron m pump (Na+–K+ concentration of Na+ outside
cell bodies and their dendrites, pump) the cell membrane and K+
where there is very little myelin. inside. The pump actively
Cortex In the CNS, gray matter on the transports K+ into the cell and
surface of the brain Na+ out of the cell
Nuclei clusters of gray matter located
deeper within the brain
Ganglion In the PNS, a cluster of neuron
cell bodies
Anatomy and Physiology
The Synapse
● S
ynapse - a junction where the axon of one
neuron interacts with another neuron or with
cells of an effector organ, such as a muscle
or gland
Presynaptic terminalEnd of the axon
Postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite or
membrane effector cell
Neurotransmitters The space separating the
presynaptic and
postsynaptic membranes
stored insynaptic vesiclesin
the presynaptic terminal.
1. Presynaptic terminal
- Ca2+ channel open
and moves
2. Release of
Action Potentials neurotransmitter by
● D epolarization and repolarization exocytosis
constitution 3. The
● Excitable cells- Muscle and nerve cells neurotransmitters
● The resting membrane potential changes in diffuse across the
response to stimuli that activate gated ion synaptic cleft and
channels. bind to specific
● Action potentials occur in an all-or-none receptor molecules
fashion. on the postsynaptic
Local Current Movement of Na+ membrane
Depolarization inside of the cell membrane to 4. The binding of
become positive neurotransmitters to
Local Potential Result of depolarization these membrane
HyperpolarizationAt the end of repolarization, the receptors causes
charge on the cell membrane chemically gated
briefly becomes more negative channels for Na+,
than the resting membrane K+, or Cl− to open or
potential close in the
Continuous The action potential is postsynaptic
conduction conducted along the entire membrane
axon cell membrane. 5. The specific channel
Saltatory Action potentials “jump” from type and whether or
conduction one node of Ranvier to the next not the channel
along the length of the axon opens or closes
greatly increases the depend on the type
conduction velocity because the of neurotransmitter in
nodes of Ranvier make it the presynaptic
unnecessary for action terminal and the type
potentials to travel along the of receptors on the
entire cell membrane. postsynaptic
membrane
6. The response may
be either stimulation
or inhibition of an
action potential in the
postsynaptic cell
acetylcholinesteraseIn synapses where
acetylcholine is the
neurotransmitter, such as in
the neuromuscular junction.
breaks down the
acetylcholine
Anatomy and Physiology
● R eflex Arc - the neuronal pathway by which
a reflex occurs. Basic functional unit of the
nervous system — smallest, simplest
pathway capable of receiving a stimulus and
yielding a response.
● 5 basic components
1. Sensory receptor
2. Sensory neuron
3. Interneurons, which are neurons
located between and communicating
with two other neurons
4. Motor neuron
5. Effector organ (muscles or glands)
euronal Pathways
N
● Spatial and temporal summation can lead to
stimulation or inhibition, depending on the
type of signal.
converging two or more neurons synapse
pathway with the same postsynaptic
neuron
Allows information transmitted
in more than one neuronal
pathway to converge into a
single pathway
diverging axon from one neuron divides
pathway and synapses
with more than one other
postsynaptic neuron
allows information transmitted
in one neuronal pathway to
diverge into two or more
pathways
Summation ummation of signals in
S
neuronal pathways allows
integration of multiple
subthreshold local potentials.
Summation of the local
potentials can bring the
membrane potential to
threshold and trigger an action
potential.
Spatial local potentials originate from
ummation
s different locations on the
postsynaptic neuron
emporal
T local potentials overlap in
summation time.From a single input that
fires rapidly, which allows the
resulting local potentials to
overlap briefly
Reflexes
● involuntary reaction in response to a
stimulus applied to the periphery and
transmitted to the CNS.
Reflexes allow a person to react to stimuli
●
more quickly than is possible if conscious
thought is involved.
Anatomy and Physiology
escending
D onsist of axons that conduct
c
tracts action potentials away from the
brain.
mall lateral
S exist in levels of the spinal cord
horns associated with the autonomic
nervous system.
Central canal fluid-filled space in the center of
the spinal cord.
Ventral Root The formed ventral rootlets
combine on the ventral
(anterior) side of the spinal cord
Dorsal root Formed dorsal rootlets combine
on the dorsal (posterior) side of
the spinal cord at each
CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS segment.
SYSTEMS contains sensory axons, and
● the brain is housed within the braincase; the the ventral root contains motor
spinal cord is in the vertebral column. axons.
● The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
orsal root
D dorsal root contains a ganglion
consists of all the nerves and ganglia
ganglion
outside the brain and spinal cord.
It contains the cell bodies of
● The PNS collects information from
pseudo-unipolar sensory
numerous sources both inside and on the
neurons
surface of the body and relays it by way of
omatic motor
S are in the anterior horn, and
sensory neurons to the CNS, where one of
neurons autonomic neurons are in the
three results is possible:
lateral horn.
1. The information is ignored
2. triggers a reflex Cerebral cortex Neurons are controlling
3. evaluated more extensively conscious movement
● Motor neurons in the PNS relay information interneurons and the neurons
from the CNS to muscles and glands in have axons that converge on
various parts of the body, regulating activity the motor neuron, which can
in those structures. The nerves of the PNS therefore be stimulated either
can be divided into two groups: through the reflex arc or by
1. 12 pairs of cranial nerves conscious thought.
2. 31 pairs of spinal nerves. onverging
C involve two or more neurons
Pathway synapsing with the same
Spinal Cord postsynaptic neuron
● A cross section reveals that the spinal cord An example of a converging
consists of a superficial white matter portion pathway involves a motor
and a deep gray matter portion. neuron in the spinal cord that
● White matterconsists of myelinated axons stimulates muscle contraction.
● Gray matteris mainly a collection of neuron iverging
D involve the axon of one neuron
cell bodies. Pathway branching and synapsing with
● The gray matter of the spinal cord is shaped more than one postsynaptic
like theletter H, withposterior hornsand neuron.
anterior horns. An example of a diverging
● Ganglion - Swelling pathway involves sensory
● The anterior and lateral horns of the spinal neurons within the spinal cord.
cord gray matter contain the cell bodies of
motor neurons, which regulate the activities
of muscles and glands.
Spinal cord Extends from the foramen
magnum at the base of the skull
to the second lumbar vertebra
Spinal Nerves Communicate between the
spinal cord and the body
Cauda equina The inferior end of the spinal
cord and the spinal nerves
exiting there resemble a horse’s
tail and are collectively
Dorsal The white matter in each half of
Ventral the spinal cord is organized into
Lateral Columns three columns
Ascending Tractsconsist of axons that conduct
action potentials toward the
brain
Anatomy and Physiology
Spinal Cord Reflexes
implest reflex
S
occurs when muscles contract in
Stretch Reflex
response to a stretching force
applied to them.
a classic example of the stretch
reflex
The stimulus for this reflex is pinal Nerves
S
stretching of the quadriceps ● Arise along the spinal cord from the union of
Knee-Jerk
femoris muscle the dorsal roots and ventral roots
Reflexor
Clinicians use the knee-jerk ● Some spinal nerves also contain
Patellar reflex
reflex to determine if the higher parasympathetic or sympathetic axons.
CNS centers that normally ● Spinal nerves exit the vertebral column
influence this reflex are between adjacent vertebrae.
functional. ● Spinal nerves:
to remove a limb or another body ○ cervical (C)
part from a painful stimulus. ○ thoracic (T)
Withdrawal
The sensory receptors are pain ○ lumbar (L)
Reflex orFlexor
receptors, and stimulation of ○ sacral (S)
Reflex
these receptors initiates the ○ and coccygeal (Co).
reflex ● The 31 pairs of spinal nerves are therefore
C1 through C8, T1 through T12, L1 through
L5, S1 through S5, and Co.
● Each of the spinal nerves except C1 has a
specific cutaneous sensory distribution.
● Spinal nerves T2 through T11 do not join a
plexus.
● Contraction of the diaphragm is largely
responsible for our ability to breathe
All the spinal nerves contain
ixed Nerves
M axons of both sensory and
somatic motor neuron
Anatomy and Physiology
the area of skin supplied with asily damaged where it
e
Dermatome sensory innervation by a pair passes posterior to the
of spinal nerves medial side of the elbow.
(braids) The ulnar nerve at this
Funny Bone
where neurons of several location
Plexus
spinal nerves come together Innervates most of the
and intermingle. anterior forearm muscles and
1. Cervical plexus three major plexuses some of the intrinsic hand
2. Brachial plexus Median Nerve muscles.
major nerves of the neck
3. Lumbosacral It also innervates the skin
and limbs
plexus over the radial side of the
supplies motor innervation to hand
the muscles of the pelvic originates from spinal nerves
Coccygeal Plexus floor and sensory cutaneous L1 to S4.
innervation to the skin over Lumbosacral PlexusFour major nerves exit the
the coccyx lumbosacral plexus to supply
originates from spinal nerves the lower limb.
C1 to C4 Innervates the muscles of
Branches from this plexus Obturator Nerve the medial thigh and the skin
innervate several of the over the same region.
Cervical Plexus
muscles attached to the Innervates the anterior thigh
hyoid bone, as well as the muscles and the skin over
Femoral Nerve
skin of the neck and the anterior thigh and medial
posterior portion of the head. side of the leg.
One of the most important Innervates the posterior thigh
branches of the cervical muscles, the anterior and
Phrenic nerve
plexus which innervates the posterior leg muscles, and
diaphragm Tibial Nerve most of the intrinsic foot
originates from spinal nerves muscles.
C5 to T1. Innervates the skin over the
Five major nerves emerge sole of the foot.
Brachial Plexus
from the brachial plexus to innervates the muscles of the
supply the upper limb and lateral thigh and leg and
shoulder. some intrinsic foot muscles.
Common Fibular
innervates two shoulder It also innervates the skin
Nerve
Axillary Nerve muscles and the skin over over the anterior and lateral
part of the shoulder. leg and the dorsal surface
innervates all the muscles in (top) of the foot.
the posterior arm and Tibial and common fibular
forearm as well as the skin nerves are bound together
Sciatic Nerve
over the posterior surface of within a connective tissue
the arm, forearm, and hand. sheath and together
Radial Nerve
lies very close to the medial
side of the humerus in the
proximal part of the arm and
is susceptible to damage in
that area.
This compression can cause
dysfunction of the radial
nerve, resulting in paralysis
Crutch paralysis of the posterior arm and
forearm muscles and loss of
sensation over the back of
the forearm and hand.
Muscle + Skin
innervates the anterior
Musculocutaneous
muscles of the arm and the
nerve
skin over the radial surface
of the forearm.
Innervates the anterior
forearm muscles and most of
the intrinsic hand muscles.
Ulnar Nerve It also innervates the skin
over the ulnar side of the
hand.
The ulnar nerve can be
Anatomy and Physiology
Brain the medulla
oblongata.
Functions:
Other nuclei in the pons
control functions such as
- Chewing
- salivation.
It contains ascending and
descending nerve tracts, as
well as several nuclei
Some of the nuclei in the
pons relay information
between the cerebrum and
the cerebellum.
rainstem
B
on the anterior surface it
● connects the spinal cord to the remainder of resembles an arched
the brain footbridge
● It consists of the medulla oblongata, the
superior to the pons, is the
pons, and the midbrain
Midbrain smallest region of the
● Functions:
brainstem
○ the control of heart rate
dorsal part of the midbrain
○ blood pressure
consists of four mounds
○ breathing
The two inferior colliculi are
Most inferior portion of the
major relay centers for the
brainstem
auditory nerve pathways in
is continuous with the spinal
the CNS. The two superior
cord.
colliculi are involved in visual
Functions: reflexes and receive touch
- regulation of heart and auditory input.
rate
Functions:
- blood vessel diameter
- Turning the head
- Breathing Colliculi
toward a tap on the
- Swallowing
shoulder, a sudden
- vomiting
loud noise, or a bright
- coughing
flash of light is a
edulla Oblongata
M - Sneezing
reflex controlled in
- Balance
the superior colliculi.
- coordination.
- Contains nuclei for
It extends from the level of eye movements and
the foramen magnum to the controlling pupil
pons. diameter and lens
a contains ascending and shape
descending nerve tracts, a black nuclear mass which
which convey signals to and Substantia Nigra
is part of the basal nuclei
from other regions of the
brain.
cattered throughout the
s
contains discrete nuclei with
brainstem is a group of
specific functions
nuclei collectively
two prominent enlargements
Regulatory functions
on the anterior surface
Reticular formation It is particularly involved in
extend the length of the
regulating cyclical motor
medulla oblongata
functions, such as
consist of descending nerve
- Respiration
Pyramids tracts, which transmit action
- Walking
potentials from the brain to
- chewing.
somatic motor neurons of the
Major component of RF
spinal cord and are involved
in the conscious control of arousing and maintaining
skeletal muscles. consciousness and in
regulating the sleep-wake
Immediately superior to the
Reticular activating cycle
medulla oblongata
ystem
s Stimuli such as a ringing
Functions:
alarm clock, sudden bright
- Breathing
Pons lights, smelling salts, or cold
- swallowing
water splashed on the face
- balance are
can arouse consciousness.
controlled in the lower
pons, as well as in
Anatomy and Physiology
Cerebellum -
ensations (sexual
S
● C erebellar Peduncles - attached to the pleasure, rage, fear,
brainstem by several large connections and relaxation after a
● These connections provide routes of meal)
communication between the cerebellum and - Emotional Responses
other parts of the CNS. (Nervous Perspiration
emotional eating)
Diencephalon A funnel shaped stalk
● the part of the brain between the brainstem extends from the floor of the
and the cerebrum Infundibulum
hypothalamus to the pituitary
● Its main components are the thalamus, the gland.
epithalamus, and the hypothalamus. Form externally visible
swellings on the posterior
portion of the hypothalamus.
Mammillary Bodies
involved in emotional
responses to odors and in
memory
Cerebrum
the largest part of the brain
●
● Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into
lobes, which are named for the skull bones
overlying them
Longitudinal The division into left and right
y far the largest part of the
b
Fissure hemispheres
diencephalon
most conspicuous features
It consists of a cluster of
on the surface of each
nuclei and is shaped Gyri
hemisphere are numerous
somewhat like a yo-yo
folds
with two large, lateral parts
greatly increase the surface
connected in the center by a
area of the cerebral cortex.
small interthalamic
Thalamus Sulci intervening grooves/shallow
adhesion
Fissure deep
Most sensory input that
ascends through the spinal - control voluntary
cord and brainstem projects motor functions
- Motivation
The thalamus also influences
Frontal Lobe - Aggression
mood and registers an
- Mood
unlocalized, uncomfortable
- olfactory (smell)
perception of pain
reception.
small area superior and
principal center for receiving
posterior to the thalamus
and consciously perceiving
It consists of a few small
most sensory information
Epithalamus nuclei, which are involved in
Parietal Lobe - Touch
the emotional and visceral
- Pain
response to odors, and the
- Temperature
pineal gland
- Balance
an endocrine gland that may
Separation of e frontal and
influence the onset of Central Sulcus
parietal lobe
puberty and may play a role
receiving and perceiving
in controlling some long term
Pineal Gland visualinput and is not
cycles that are influenced by Occipital Lobe
distinctly separate from the
the light-dark cycle.
other lobes.
known to influence annual
- olfactory (smell)
behaviors,
- auditory (hearing)
most inferior part of the
Temporal lobe sensations
diencephalon
- plays an important
The hypothalamus plays a role in memory
major role in controlling the
The anterior and inferior
secretion of hormones from
portions of temporal lobe
the pituitary gland Psychic cortex
Hypothalamus - Abstract thought
maintaining homeostasis. - Judgement
Functions: Separation of temporal lobe
- control of body Lateral Fissure
from the rest of the cerebrum
temperature
deep within the fissure often
- Hunger Insula
referred to as thefifth lobe.
- thirst.
Anatomy and Physiology
Sensory Functions
● S ensory input to the brainstem and
diencephalon helps maintain homeostasis.
● Input to the cerebrum and cerebellum keeps
us informed about our environment and
allows the CNS to control motor functions.
● A small portion of the sensory input results
in perception, the conscious awareness of
stimuli
scending tracts
A
● The spinal cord and brainstem contain a
number of ascending (sensory) tracts, or
pathways, that transmit information via
action potentials from the periphery to
various parts of the brain
● Each tract is involved with a limited type of
sensory input, such as pain, temperature,
touch, position, or pressure, because each
tract contains axons from specific sensory
receptors specialized to detect a particular
type of stimulus
● Spino- spinal cord
● Most ascending tracts consist of two or
three neurons in sequence, from the Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
periphery to the brain. ● The terms area and cortex are often used
● the left side of the brain receives sensory interchangeably for these regions of the
input from the right side of the body, and cerebral cortex.
vice versa ● Primary sensory areas - Ascending tracts
project to specific regions of the cerebral
cortex whereas sensations are perceived
● primary somatic sensory cortex, or
general sensory area- located in the
parietal lobe posterior to the central sulcus.
● Sensory fibers carrying general sensory
input, such as pain, pressure, and
temperature, synapse in the thalamus, and
thalamic neurons relay the information to
the primary somatic sensory cortex
● Association areas -Cortical areas
immediately adjacent to the primary sensory
areas, are involved in the process of
recognition.
Anatomy and Physiology
Somatic Motor Functions
● S omatic motor system of the brain and
spinal cord is responsible for maintaining
the body’s posture and balance, as well as
moving the trunk, head, limbs, tongue, and
eyes and communicating through facial
expressions and speech.
● Involuntary movements - without
conscious thought.
● Voluntary movements- consciously
activated to achieve a specific goal, such as
walking or typing.
- result from the stimulation of
neural circuits that consist of
two motor neurons
- Upper Motor Neurons - have
cell bodies in the cerebral
cortex
- Lower motor neurons - have
cell bodies in the anterior
horn of the spinal cord gray
matter or in cranial nerve
nuclei.
Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
● p rimary motor cortex- located in the
posterior portion of the frontal lobe, directly
anterior to the central sulcus
- control voluntary movements of
skeletal muscles
● premotor areaof the frontal lobe is where
motor functions are organized before they
are actually initiated in the primary motor
cortex.
● prefrontal area- The motivation and
foresight to plan and initiate movements
occur in the anterior portion of the frontal
lobes
- well developed only in primates,
especially humans. It is involved in
motivation and regulation of
emotional behavior and mood.
Descending Tracts
● The descending tracts control different
types of movements
● based on where they originate in the brain
and where they terminate in the spinal cord
or the brain stem
● corticospinal tracts are considereddirect
because they extend directly from upper
motor neurons in the cerebral cortex to
lower motor neurons in the spinal cord
● Indirect -no direct connection exists
between the cortical and spinal neurons.
● lateral corticospinal tracts -especially
important in controlling the speed and
precision of skilled movements of the
hands.
- It begins in the cerebral cortex and
descends into the brainstem
Anatomy and Physiology
Basal Nuclei
a
● re a group of functionally related nuclei
● The basal nuclei are important in planning,
organizing, and coordinating motor
movements and posture.
● Corpus striatum- located deep within the
cerebrum
● Substantia nigra- a group of darkly
pigmented cells in the midbrain.
● stimulatory circuits
○ facilitate muscle activity
○ especially at the beginning of a
voluntary movement, such as rising
from a sitting position or beginning to
walk.
● inhibitory circuits
○ facilitate the actions of the Other Brain Functions
stimulatory circuits by inhibiting
muscle activity in antagonist Communication Between the Right and Left
muscles. Hemispheres
- decrease muscle tone when the ● right cerebral hemisphere
body, limbs, and head are at rest. ○ receives sensory input from and
controls muscular activity in the left
half of the body.
● left cerebral hemisphere
○ receives input from and controls
muscles in the right half of the body.
● Commissures- Sensory information
received by one hemisphere is shared with
the other through connections between the
two hemispheres
● Corpus callosum- largest of these
commissures
Cerebellum - broad band of nerve tracts at the
● a ttached by cerebellar peduncles to the base of the longitudinal fissure
brainstem ● Left hemisphere- analytical, mathematical
● Compares information ● Right hemisphere- musical, art
● cerebellar cortex- composed of gray
matter and has gyri and sulci, but the gyri Speech
are much smaller than those of the ● the speech area is in the left cerebral
cerebrum. cortex.
● cerebellum consists of gray nuclei and white ● Sensory speech area(Wernicke area)
nerve tracts ○ located in the parietal lobe, functions
● maintaining balance and muscle tone and in in understanding and formulating
coordinating fine motor movement coherent speech.
● comparator - a sensing device that ● Motor speech area (Broca area)
compares the data from two sources—in ○ located in the frontal lobe, controls
this case, the motor cortex and peripheral the movement necessary for speech
structures. ● Aphasia
- Major function of cerebellum ○ absent or defective speech or
● In addition, simultaneously, reaching the language comprehension. (e.g.
cerebellum are action potentials from stroke)
proprioceptive (prō-prē-ō-sep′tiv) neurons,
which innervate joints, tendons, and Brain Waves and Consciousness
muscles and provide information about the ● E lectroencephalogram (EEG) - Electrodes
position of body parts. placed on a person’s scalp and attached to
a recording device can record the brain’s
electrical activity, producing.
- Most of the time, EEG patterns are
irregular, with no particular pattern,
because the brain’s electrical activity
is normally not synchronous
● Brain waves- wavelike patterns
● Alpha waves- observed in a normal person
who is awake but in a quiet, resting state
with the eyes closed.
Anatomy and Physiology
● B eta waves- higher frequency than alpha r esponses to emotions, motivation,
waves and occur during intense mental and mood.
activity ● olfactory nerves- major source of sensory
● Delta waves- occur during deep sleep, in input to the limbic system
infants, and in patients with severe brain by initiating responses necessary for
●
disorders. survival, such as hunger and thirst.
● Theta waves- usually observed in children,
but they can also occur in adults who are
experiencing frustration or who have certain
brain disorders.
MENINGES, VENTRICLES, AND
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
eninges
M
● Three connective tissue membranes
● surround and protect the brain and spinal
cord
● Dura Mater
○ most superficial and thickest of the
meninges
○ Folds of dura mater extend into the
longitudinal fissure between the two
cerebral hemispheres and between
the cerebrum and the cerebellum.
● dural venous sinuses
○ collect blood from the small veins of
the brain and empty into the internal
jugular veins, which exit the skull.
● subdural hematoma - damage veins
Memory crossing between the cerebral cortex and
s
● torage of memory the dural venous sinuses can cause
● Long term- it may be stored for only a few bleeding into the subdural space
minutes or become permanent, by ● epidural space- between the dura mater
consolidation, a gradual process involving and the vertebrae; clinically important as
the formation of new and stronger synaptic the injection site for epidural anesthesia of
connections the spinal nerves
1. Declarative/explicit memory- ● Arachnoid mater -second meningeal
facts, names, dates, places, membrane is the very thin, wispy
emotion, mood ● subdural space- space between the dura
2. Procedural/ reflexive memory - mater and the arachnoid mater; normally
Motor skills only a potential space containing a very
● Short term- lasts longer than working small amount of serous fluid.
memory and can be retained for a few ● pia mater- very tightly bound to the surface
minutes to a few days. of the brain and spinal cord.
- stored by a mechanism involving ● subarachnoid space- Between the
increased synaptic transmission. arachnoid mater and the pia mater. Which is
- susceptible to brain trauma filled with cerebrospinal fluid and contains
● Working memory- task-associated blood vessels.
memory
● memory engrams/ memory traces -are
probably involved in the long-term retention
of a given piece of information, a thought, or
an idea.
Limbic System and Emotions
● L
imbic System- olfactory cortex and
certain deep cortical regions and nuclei of
the cerebrum and the diencephalon are
grouped together
- influences long-term declarative
memory, emotions, visceral
Anatomy and Physiology
entricles
V
● The CNS contains fluid-filled cavities
● quite small in some areas and large in
others
● lateral ventricle- Each cerebral
hemisphere contains a relatively large cavity
● third ventricle- smaller, midline cavity
located in the center of the diencephalon
between the two halves of the thalamus and
connected by foramina (holes) to the lateral
ventricles.
● fourth ventricle- located at the base of the
cerebellum and connected to the third
ventricle by a narrow canal, called the
cerebral aqueduct
● The fourth ventricle is continuous with the
central canalof the spinal cord.
Cranial nerves
● The fourth ventricle also opens into the
1
● 2 pairs of cranial nerves
subarachnoid space through foramina in its
● They are designated by Roman numerals
walls and roof
from I to XII. There are two general
Cerebrospinal Fluid
categories of cranial nerve function: sensory
● CNF- bathes the brain and spinal cord,
and motor
providing a protective cushion around the
● Sensory functions
CNS
○ divided into the special senses, such
● Choroid plexuses- produce the CSF
as vision, and the more general
- made of ependymal cells and are
senses, such as touch and pain in
located in the ventricles
the face.
- fills the brain ventricles
● Motor functions
● arachnoid granulations- Masses of
○ subdivided into somatic motor and
arachnoid tissue.
parasympathetic.
● Hydrocephalus- Blockage of the openings
● Somatic motorcranial nerves
in the fourth ventricle or the cerebral
○ innervate skeletal muscles in the
aqueduct can cause CSF to accumulate in
head and neck.
the ventricles, a condition
● Parasympatheticcranial nerves
○ innervate glands, smooth muscle
throughout the body, and cardiac
muscle of the heart.
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
● C ell bodies of sympathetic preganglionic
neurons are in the lateral horn of the spinal
cord gray matter between the first thoracic
(T1) and the second lumbar (L2) segments.
● sympathetic chain ganglia- connected to
one another and are so named because
they form a chain along both sides of the
spinal cord.
● The axons of those preganglionic fibers
that do not synapse in the sympathetic
chain ganglia formsplanchnic nervesthat
extend to collateral ganglia.
● Collateral gangliaare located nearer target
organs.
- celiac, superior mesenteric, and
inferior mesenteric ganglia.
natomy of the Parasympathetic Division
A
● Preganglionic cell bodies of the
parasympathetic division are located either
within brainstem nuclei of the oculomotor
nerve (III), facial nerve (VII),
glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), or vagus
nerve (X) or within the lateral part of the
central gray matter of the spinal cord in the
regions that give rise to spinal nerves S2
Autonomic nervous system through S4
● c omprises motor neurons that carry action ● Axons of the preganglionic neurons extend
potentials from the CNS to the periphery through spinal nerves or cranial nerves to
● autonomic neurons innervate smooth terminal gangliaeither located near
muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. effector organs in the head or embedded in
● Autonomic functionsare largely controlled the walls of effector organs in the thorax,
unconsciously. abdomen, and pelvis.
● preganglionic neuron- extends to the ● Most of the thoracic and abdominal organs
adrenal gland. are supplied by preganglionic neurons of
● postganglionic neuron- actually the thevagus nerveextending from the
hormone-secreting cells of the adrenal brainstem.
medulla ● The vagus nerve branches to provide
● Theneuronsare so named because parasympathetic innervation to the heart,
preganglionic neurons synapse with the lungs, the liver, and the stomach and
postganglionic neurons inautonomic other digestive organs
gangliawithin the PNS.
● Sympathetic division- voluntary; fight or
flight Autonomic Neurotransmitter
● Parasympathetic division- involuntary; ● T he neurotransmitters of the autonomic
rest and digest nervous system vary depending on the
specific synapse.
● All preganglionic neurons of both the
sympathetic and the parasympathetic
divisions and all the postganglionic neurons
of the parasympathetic division secrete the
neurotransmitteracetylcholine.
● Most postganglionic neurons of the
sympathetic division secrete
norepinephrine.
Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
● Thesympathetic (fight-or-flight) division
of the autonomic nervous system prepares
a person for physical activity
● HR, BP
● Increase
● parasympathetic division
(rest-and-digest)of the autonomic nervous
system is generally consistent with resting
conditions
● Digestion
● Defecation
Anatomy and Physiology
U
● rination ● R eflexes slow as people age because both
● Most organs that receive autonomic the generation and the conduction of action
neurons are innervated by both the potentials and synaptic functions slow
parasympathetic and the sympathetic ● A decreased sense of position of the limbs
division, a phenomenon known asdual and in the joints can affect balance and
innervation coordination.
Chapter 9: Senses
SENSATION
● S enses- the brain receives information
about the environment and the body.
● Sensationis the process initiated by
stimulating sensory receptors
● Perception- the conscious awareness of
those stimuli.
- Perception results when action
potentials reach the cerebral cortex.
● Sensory receptorsrespond to stimuli by
generating action potentials that are
propagated to the spinal cord and brain.
● General senses- have receptors
distributed over a large part of the body.
- somatic senses- provide sensory
information about the body and the
environment
- visceral senses -provide
information about various internal
organs, primarily involving pain and
pressure.
● The receptors for thespecial sensesare
more specialized in structure and are
localized to specific parts of the body.
● The special senses are smell, taste, sight,
hearing, and balance.
SENSORY RECEPTORS
● Sensory receptors- sensory nerve
endings or specialized cells capable of
Enteric Nervous system responding to stimuli by developing action
● c onsists of plexuses within the wall of the potentials.
digestive tract ● Mechanoreceptorsrespond to mechanical
● The plexuses include stimuli, such as the bending or stretching of
○ sensory neurons that connect the receptors.
digestive tract to the CNS ● Chemoreceptorsrespond to chemicals.
○ sympathetic and parasympathetic ○ odor molecules bind to
neurons that connect the CNS to the chemoreceptors, allowing us to
digestive tract perceive smells.
○ enteric neurons, located entirely ● Photoreceptorsrespond to light.
within the enteric plexuses ● Thermoreceptorsrespond to temperature
● enteric neurons changes.
○ capable of monitoring and controlling ● Nociceptorsrespond to stimuli that result in
the digestive tract independently of the sensation of pain
the CNS through local reflexes.
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
● In general, sensory and motor functions
decline with age.
● Mental functions, including memory, may
decline with age, but this varies from person
to person.
● Short-term memory is decreased in most
older people.
● The size and weight of the brain decrease
as a person ages. GENERAL SENSES
Anatomy and Physiology
● include the senses of touch, pressure, pain, ● P ain is characterized by a group of
temperature, vibration, itch, and unpleasant perceptual and emotional
proprioception, which is the sense of experiences.
movement and position of the body and 1. localized, sharp, pricking, or cutting
limbs pain resulting from rapidly conducted
● Associated with the skin action potentials
● others are associated with deeper 2. diffuse, burning, or aching pain
structures, such as tendons, ligaments, and resulting from action potentials that
muscles are propagated more slowly.
● free nerve endings -the simplest and most ● Superficial pain sensations- highly
common types of sensory receptors localized as a result of the simultaneous
○ unspecialized neuronal branches stimulation of pain receptors and tactile
similar to dendrites. receptors.
○ distributed throughout almost all ● Deep or visceral pain sensations- not
parts of the body. highly localized because of the absence of
○ Some free nerve endings respond to tactile receptors in the deeper structures.
painful stimuli, some to temperature, ● Visceral pain stimuli- normally perceived
some to itch, and some to as diffuse pain.
movement. ● Perception of pain can be disrupted through
● Cold receptors -respond to decreasing anesthesia.
temperatures but stop responding at ● Local anesthesia- suppresses action
temperatures below 12°C (54°F). potentials from pain receptors in local areas
● Warm receptors- respond to increasing of the body through the injection of chemical
temperatures but stop responding at anesthetics near a sensory receptor or
temperatures above 47°C (117°F). nerve.
● Only pain receptors are stimulated at ● General anesthesia- loss of
temperatures below 12°C or above 47°C. consciousness is produced.
● Touch receptors- structurally more ○ a treatment where chemical
complex than free nerve endings. Many anesthetics that affect the reticular
touch receptors are enclosed by capsules. activating system are administered.
● Merkel disks- small, superficial nerve ● Gate control theory- action potentials
endings involved in detecting light touch and “close the gate” and inhibit action potentials
superficial pressure. carried to the brain by the spinothalamic
● Hair follicle receptors- associated with tract
hairs, are also involved in detecting light ○ explain the physiological basis for
touch. several techniques that have been
● Light touch receptors- very sensitive but used to reduce the intensity of pain.
not very discriminative, meaning that the ○ why the intensity of pain is
point being touched cannot be precisely decreased by diverting a person’s
located. attention
● Meissner corpuscles- Receptors for fine,
discriminative touch ⬆️
● Vigorous mental or physical activity -
action potentials =⬇️ sensation of pain
○ located just deep to the epidermis.
These receptors are very specific in
localizing tactile sensations.
⬇️● Acupuncture and acupressure -
sensation of pain
● Referred pain- perceived to originate in a
● Ruffini corpuscles- Deeper tactile region of the body that is not the source of
receptors the pain stimulus.
○ play an important role in detecting ○ Deep (e.g. internal organs, are
continuous pressure in the skin. damaged or inflamed)
● pacinian corpuscles -deepest receptors ○ clinically useful in diagnosing the
are associated with tendons and joints and actual cause of the painful stimulus.
○ relay information concerning deep ● The brain cannot distinguish between the
pressure, vibration, and position two sources of pain stimuli, and the painful
(proprioception) sensation is referred to the most superficial
structures innervated, such as the skin.
Pain
Anatomy and Physiology
Special Senses
● T he sensations of smell and taste are
closely related, both structurally and
functionally, and both are initiated by the
interaction of chemicals with
chemoreceptors
● The sense of vision is initiated by the
interaction of light withphotoreceptors.
● Both hearing and balance function in
response to the interaction of mechanical Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
stimuli withmechanoreceptors. ● T he neuronal pathways of olfaction carry
● Hearing occurs in response to sound action potentials from the olfactory neurons
waves, and balance occurs in response to to the areas of the cerebrum that allow for
gravity or motion. perception and interpretation of the stimuli.
Olfaction ● Axons from olfactory neurons form the
● sense of smell olfactory nerves (cranial nerve I), which
● Odorants- response to airborne molecules pass through the foramina of the cribriform
○ that enter the nasal cavity plate and enter theolfactory bulb. There
● Olfactory Neurons- bipolar neurons within the olfactory neurons synapse with
the olfactory epithelium interneurons that relay action potentials to
● Olfactory epithelium- which lines the the brain through theolfactory tracts.
superior part of the nasal cavity ● olfactory cortex -Where Each olfactory
● mucus- keeps the nasal epithelium moist, tract terminates in an area of the brain
traps and dissolves airborne molecules, and ○ located within the temporal and
facilitates the removal of molecules and frontal lobes.
particles from the nasal epithelium. ○ involved with both the conscious
● There are at least 400 functional olfactory perception of smell and the visceral
receptors in humans. and emotional reactions that are
● These multiple combinations of odorants often linked to odors
and receptors allow us to detect an ● Olfaction
estimated 10,000 different smells. ○ only major sensation that is relayed
● The olfactory range and sensitivity is even directly to the cerebral cortex without
greater in some animals than in humans, first passing through the thalamus
due to a larger number and more types of ● Adaptation- prolonged exposure to a
olfactory receptors. given odorant.
○ temporary decreased sensitivity at
the level of the receptors
Taste
● t aste buds- sensory structures that detect
taste stimuli
○ oval structures located on the
surface of certain papillae
○ most sensitive to one class of taste
stimuli
● Papillae- enlargements on the surface of
the tongue
Anatomy and Physiology
● S pecialized epithelial cells form the exterior Neuronal Pathways for taste
supporting capsule of each taste bud, and ● three cranial nerves
the interior consists of about40 taste cells. 1. facial nerve- transmits taste
● Taste Hairs- hairlike processes, extend sensations from the anterior
through a tiny opening in the surrounding two-thirds of the tongue.
● Taste pore- Tiny opening surrounding in 2. glossopharyngeal nerve- carries
stratified epithelium taste sensations from the posterior
● Taste sensations one-third.
1. Sour 3. vagus nerve- carries some taste
2. Salty sensations from the root of the
3. Bitter tongue.
4. Sweet ● Axons from these three cranial nerves
5. umami/savory synapse in the gustatory (taste) portion of
● taste sensation returns within a few hours to brainstem nuclei.
a few days. If the cells die, it takes about 2 ● Axons of neurons in these brainstem nuclei
weeks for the epithelial cells to be replaced. extend to and synapse with interneurons in
● Many taste sensations are strongly the thalamus. Axons from neurons in the
influenced by olfactory sensations. thalamus project to the taste area in the
insula of the cerebrum
Vision
● O rbits- eyes are housed within bony
cavities
● Visual System- Obtain information about
the world
● Visual input -includes information about
light and dark, movement and color
○ begins as action potentials
originating in the eyes.
Accessory Structures of the Eye
● Accessory structures protect, lubricate, and
move the eye.
● Eyebrows
○ protect the eyes - perspiration =
irritation
○ Shade the eyes from sunlight
● Eyelids
○ w/ lashes protect the eyes from
foreign objects
○ blink reflex
○ Blinking, which normally occurs
about 20 times per minute, also
helps keep the eyes lubricated by
spreading tears over the surface.
● Conjunctiva
○ thin, transparent mucous membrane
covering the inner surface of the
eyelids and the anterior surface of
the eye
○ help lubricate the surface of the eye.
○ Conjunctivitis- an inflammation of
the conjunctiva
● Lacrimal apparatus
○ lacrimal gland situated in the
superior lateral corner of the orbit
Anatomy and Physiology
nd a nasolacrimal duct and
a Anatomy of the Eye
associated structures in the inferior E
● yeball- hollow, fluid-filled sphere.
medial corner of the orbit ● Tunics -three tissue layers in the wall of
○ Lacrimal Gland- produces a fluid the eyeball
(tears) ● Fibrous tunic
○ Lacrimal canaliculi- excess tears ○ outer consists of the sclera and
are collected in the medial angle of cornea.
the eyes by small ducts ○ sclera
○ Lacrimal Sac- open canaliculi, an ■ firm, white, outer connective
enlargement of the nasolacrimal tissue layer of the posterior
duct five-sixths of the fibrous
○ Nasolacrimal duct- Extrinsic eye tunic.
muscle ■ helps maintain the shape of
○ Tears pass through the nasolacrimal the eye
duct into the nasal cavity. ■ protects the internal
○ Tears lubricate and cleanse the eye. structures
○ They also contain an enzyme that ■ provides attachment sites for
helps combat eye infections. the extrinsic eye muscles.
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
● ■ “white of the eye.”
○ 6 extrinsic eye muscleseach ○ cornea
eyeball ■ transparent anterior sixth of
○ extrinsic muscles are skeletal the eye
muscles and are responsible for the ■ permits light to enter
movement of each eyeball ■ bends, or refracts, the
1. Superior rectus muscles. entering light
2. Inferior rectus muscles. ● Vascular tunic
3. Medial rectus muscles. ○ middle, consists of the choroid,
4. lateral rectus muscles. ciliary body, and iris.
5. Superior Oblique muscles ○ contains most of the blood vessels
6. Inferior oblique muscles of the eye
■ Choroid- posterior portion of
the vascular tunic,
associated with the sclera
- Appear black - many
melanin
- Vascular network
○ black color absorbs light, so that it is
not reflected inside the eye
○ Ciliary body- anterior margin of
the choroid.
○ ciliary muscles- smooth muscles in
the ciliary body which attach to the
perimeter of the lens bysuspensory
ligaments
○ Lens -flexible, biconvex,
transparent disc
○ Iris- colored part of the eye.
■ attached to the anterior
margin of the ciliary body,
anterior to the lens
○ Pupil- opening in the eye
○ Parasympathetic stimulation from
the oculomotor nerve (III) causes the
circular smooth muscles of the iris to
contract, constricting the pupil,
whereas sympathetic stimulation
causes radial smooth muscles of the
iris to contract, dilating the pupil
○ As light intensity increases, the pupil
constricts; as light intensity
decreases, the pupil dilates.
● Nervous Tunic-
○ inner, consists of the retina.
○ Retina - covers the posterior
five-sixths of the eye
■ Pigmented retina
● outer
Anatomy and Physiology
● w ith the choroid, ● Anterior Chamber
keeps light from ○ located between the cornea and the
reflecting back into lens; iris separates
the eye. ● Posterior Chamber
■ Sensory retina ○ located between the cornea and the
● inner lens; iris separates
● a contains ● Vitreous Chamber
photoreceptor cells as ○ posterior to the lens
well as numerous ○ vitreous humor
interneurons ■ transparent, jellylike
■ Rods substance
● Photoreceptor cells & ■ refracts light.
respond to light ■ Does Not circulate
● Dim light ■ helps maintain pressure
● Sensitive within the eye and holds the
● Black & white vision lens and the retina in place
■ cones ● Aqueous Humor- Filling the AC & PC
● Photoreceptor cells & ○ Helps maintain pressure within the
respond to light eye, refracts light, and provides
● More light nutrients to the inner surface of the
● Color vision eye.
● Sensitive: green, red, ○ s produced by the ciliary body as a
blue blood filtrate and is returned to the
■ Rhodopsin - blood through a venous ring that
● Rod photoreceptors surrounds the cornea.
contain a ○ Keeps eye inflated
photosensitive ● Glaucoma- If aqueous humor flow from the
pigment eye through the venous ring is blocked, the
■ Opsin- protein in rhodopsin pressure in the eye increases = blindness
■ Retinal- yellow pigment
○ The manufacture of retinal in rods
takes time and requires vitamin A.
○ Night blindness- Vit. A deficiency
○ Retinal Detachment- result of night
blindness
○ photosensitive pigmentsin cone
cells are slightly different from those
in rod cells. The pigments in cone
cells are sensitive to colors.
○ color-sensitive opsin exist:
1. Blue
2. Red
3. Green
○ the sensory retina also contains
interneurons, including bipolar cells,
horizontal cells, and ganglion cells.
○ The bipolar and horizontal cells
synapse with ganglion cells, whose
axons converge at the posterior of
the eye to form theoptic nerve
○ Macula - is a small spot near the
center of the posterior retina.
○ Fovea Centralis- small pit in center
of macula
- the part of the retina where
light is most focused when
the eye is looking directly at
an object
- only cone cells
- greatest ability to
discriminate fine images
○ Optic disc- white spot just medial
to the macula
○ Blind Spot of the eye- optic disc
contains no photoreceptor cells and
does not respond to light
Anatomy and Physiology
Neuronal Pathways for Vision
● T he optic nerve leaves the eye and exits the
orbit through the optic foramen to enter the
cranial cavity. Just inside the cranial cavity,
the two optic nerves connect to each other
at the optic chiasm
● Beyond the optic chiasm, the route of the
ganglionic axons is through the two optic
tracts
● Neurons from the thalamus form the fibers
of the optic radiations, which project to the
visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the
cerebrum
● visual cortex- the area of the cerebrum
where vision is perceived
● image seen by each eye is thevisual field
of that eye
● Depth perception-three-dimensional, or
binocular, vision requires both eyes and
occurs where the two visual fields overlap
● The brain then processes the two images
into a three-dimensional view of the object.
● Diplopia or double vision- misalignment
of the two eyes (binocular diplopia).
Functions of the eye
● T heirisallows light into the eye, which is
focused by the cornea, lens, and humors
onto the retina.
● The light striking the retina produces action
potentials that are relayed to the brain
● Light Refraction- As light passes from air
to some other, denser transparent
substance, the light rays are refracted.
○ Focal Point - Crossing point
○ Focusing - causing light to converge Hearing and Balance
● Focusing Images on the Retina ● E xternal ear- part extending from the
○ 20/20 vision - normal vision outside of the head to the tympanic
○ 20/40 vision - corrective lenses are membrane, commonly called theeardrum.
probably needed ● Middle ear- air-filled chamber medial to the
● Accommodation tympanic membrane.
○ changing the shape of the lens ● Inner ear- set of fluid-filled chambers
○ it enables the eye to focus on medial to the middle ear.
images closer than 20 feet from the ○ Hearing and balance
eye
Anatomy and Physiology
● T he external and middle ears conduct estibuli from the
v
sound waves toward the inner ear. apex back to the
Anatomy of the Ear round window
● External Ear ● Cochlear duct-
○ Auricle- fleshy part of the external formed by the space
ear on the outside of the head. between the
■ Collects sound waves vestibular membrane
○ external auditory canal - a and the basilar
passageway that leads to the membrane and is
eardrum filled with endolymph.
■ Has hairs and ● Vestibular
■ Ceruminous glands- membrane- the wall
produce cerumen of the membranous
■ Cerumen- modified sebum labyrinth that lines the
commonly calledearwax scala vestibuli
○ Tympanic Membrane / eardrum- ● Basilar membrane-
■ thin membrane that the wall of the
separates the external ear membranous
from the middle ear. labyrinth that lines the
■ It consists of a thin layer of scala tympani
connective tissue ■ Spiral organ / Organ of
sandwiched between two corti- specialized structure
epithelial layers. inside the cochlear duct.
■ Sound waves reaching the ■ Hair cells- have hairlike
tympanic membrane cause it microvilli, often referred to as
to vibrate. stereocilia; no axons of their
● Middle Ear own,
○ Oval window ■ Tectorial Membrane-
○ Round window- connect the acellular gelatinous shelf,
middle ear with the inner ear. attached to the spiral lamina
○ Auditory Ossicles- form a flexible, ■ Cochlear ganglionorspiral
bony bridge that transmits vibrations ganglion- location of the cell
from the tympanic membrane to the bodies
oval window. ■ This nerve joins the
■ Malleus- attached to the vestibular nerve to become
medial surface of the thevestibulocochlear
tympanic membrane. nerve (VIII), which carries
■ Incus- connects the malleus action potentials to the brain
to the stapes. ○ Membranous labyrinth- Inside the
■ Stapes- seated in the oval bony labyrinth is a smaller set of
window, surrounded by a membranous tunnels and chambers
flexible ligament Endolymph- clear fluid in the
○
○ 20 folds = 20 times membranous labyrinth
○ opens into the mastoid air cells in ○ Perilymph- fluid filling the space
the mastoid process of the temporal between the membranous and bony
bone. labyrinth.
○ Auditory tube, or eustachian tube
- opens into the pharynx and
enables air pressure to be equalized
between the outside air and the
middle ear cavity.
● Inner Ear
○ Bony Labyrinth- interconnecting
tunnels and chambers within the
temporal bone
■ Cochlea- shaped like a
snail shell and contains a
bony core shaped like a
screw.
● Spiral lamina-
threads of this screw
● Scala vestibuli-
extends from the oval
window to the apex of
the cochlea
● Scala tympani-
extends in parallel
with the scala
Anatomy and Physiology
Neuronal Pathways for Hearing
● T he senses of hearing and balance are both
transmitted by thevestibulocochlear
nerve (VIII).
● This nerve functions as two separate
nerves, carrying information from two
separate but closely related structures.
● Thecochlear nerve- hearing;
● thevestibular nerve- balance.
● The cochlear nerve sends axons to the
cochlear nucleus in the brainstem.
● Neurons in the cochlear nucleus project to
other areas of the brainstem and to the
inferior colliculus in the midbrain.
● Neurons from the inferior colliculus also
project to the superior colliculus, where
reflexes that turn the head and eyes in
response to loud sounds are initiated.
● From the inferior colliculus, fibers project to
the thalamus and from there to the auditory
Hearing cortex of the cerebrum
V
● ibrations createsound waves.
● Sound waves are collected by the auricle
and conducted through the external auditory
canal toward the tympanic membrane.
● Sound waves strike the tympanic
membrane and cause it to vibrate.
● This vibration causes vibration of the three
ossicles of the middle ear, and by this
mechanical linkage, the force of vibration is
amplified and transferred to the oval window
● The two scalae can be thought of as a
continuous, U-shaped tube, with the oval
window at one end of the scala vestibuli and
the round window at the other end of the
scala tympani. Balance
● When describing these vibrations, we refer ● S tatic equilibrium- vestibule and is
to them as sound waves. involved in evaluating the position of the
● Pitch- frequency, or wavelength, of sound. head relative to gravity.
● Volume- related to the amplitude of the ● Dynamic equilibrium- semicircular canals
sound wave. and is involved in evaluating changes in the
● The width and structure of the basilar direction and rate of head movements
membrane are not uniform throughout its ● Vestibuleof the inner ear can be divided
length. into two chambers
● The membrane is narrower and denser near ○ utricle
the oval window and wider and less dense ○ saccule
near the tip of the cochlea ● Maculae- Surrounded by endolymph
● Conduction deafness- mechanical ● Otolithic membrane- gelatinous mass
deficiencies ● Otoliths- particles composed of protein
● Sensorineural hearing loss- deficiencies and calcium carbonate.
in the spiral organ or nerves ● semicircular canals- dynamic equilibrium.
● Ampulla- expanded base of each
semicircular canal
● Crista ampullaris- specialized formed of
epithelium (sensory organ for rotation)
● Cupula- a curved, gelatinous mass,
suspended over the crest, no otoliths
● motion sickness- Continuous stimulation
of the semicircular canals
Anatomy and Physiology
● S easicknessis a form of motion sickness,
which is caused by conflicting information
reaching the brain from different sensory
sources, such as the eyes and the
semicircular canals of the inner ear.
● The brain reacts with a feeling of vertigo (a
feeling of spinning) and nausea.
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE SENSES
● E lderly people experience a general decline
in some general senses and in taste, vision,
hearing, and balance.
● A loss ofpacinian corpusclesalso
decreases their awareness of limb and joint
positions, which can affect balance and
coordination.
● Presbyopia - most common age-related
change in the eyes
● Presbycusis - age-related sensorineural
hearing loss
Chapter 11: Blood
Functions of Blood
“ Essence of Life”
●
● Diagnostic tests that evaluate blood
composition can reveal much about our
health.
● The heart pumps blood through blood
vessels that extend throughout the body.
● Blood helps maintain homeostasis in
several ways:
1. Transport of gasses, nutrients, and
waste products.
2. Transport of processed molecules.
3. transport of regulatory molecules.
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis
5. Maintenance of body temperature
6. Protection against foreign
substances.
7. Clot formation
Composition of Blood
● B lood- type of connective tissue that
consists of a liquid matrix containing cells
Neuronal Pathways for Balance and cell fragments.
● A xons forming the vestibular portion of the ● Plasma- liquid matrix
vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) project to the ● Formed elements- the cells and cell
vestibular nucleus in the brainstem. fragments
● Axons run from this nucleus to numerous ● 55% - plasma
areas of the CNS, such as the cerebellum ● 45% - formed elements
and cerebral cortex. ● 4-5 L - female total blood volume
● Balance- a complex sensation involving ● 5–6 L - the average adult male.
sensory input to the vestibular nucleus not ● 8% - Blood makes up total body weight.
only from the inner ear but also from the
limbs (proprioception) and visual system as
well.
● In sobriety tests, people are asked to close
their eyes while their balance is evaluated
because alcohol affects the proprioceptive
and vestibular components of balance to a
greater extent than the visual component of
balance.
Anatomy and Physiology
● R ed blood cells are 700 times more
numerous than white blood cells and 17
times more numerous than platelets
RBC
● Biconcave disk
● no nucleus
● contains hemoglobin, which colors the cell
red; 6.5–8.5 μm in diameter
● Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
WBC
● Spherical cells with a nucleus
1. Granulocytes
a. Neutrophil- Phagocytizes
microorganisms and other
substances
b. Basophil- Releases histamine,
which promotes inflammation, and
heparin, which prevents clot
formation
c. Eosinophil- Participates in
inflammatory response of allergic
Plasma reactions and asthma; attacks
Y
● ellow fluid certain worm parasites
● 91% water - contain cytoplasmic granules
● 7% proteins that stain bright red with
● 2% other components, such as ions, eosin, an acidic stain
nutrients, gasses, waste products, and 2. Agranulocytes
regulatory substances a. Lymphocyte- Produces antibodies
● Albumin - 58% of the plasma proteins. and other chemicals responsible for
Although the osmotic pressureof blood destroying microorganisms;
results primarily from Na+ and Cl−, albumin contributes to allergic reactions, graft
also makes an important contribution. rejection, tumor control, and
● The water balance between the blood and regulation of immune system
the tissues is determined by the movement - Smallest
of water into and out of the blood by - production of antibodies and
osmosis. other chemicals.
● Globulins38% of the plasma proteins. b. Monocyte- Phagocytic cell in the
Some globulins, such as antibodies and blood; leaves the blood and
complement, are part of the immune becomes a macrophage, which
system. phagocytizes bacteria, dead cells,
● Some globulins are clotting factors, which cell fragments, and other debris
are necessary for the formation of blood within tissues
clots. - Largest wbc
● Fibrinogen- a clotting factor that - Macrophages - ending of
constitutes 4% of plasma proteins. monocytes
● Activation of clotting factors results in the Platelets
conversion offibrinogen to fibrin ● Cell fragment surrounded by a plasma
● Fibrin- threadlike protein that forms blood membrane and containing granules
clots ● Forms platelet plugs
● Serum- plasma without the clotting factors. ● releases chemicals necessary for blood
● Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs, and clotting
carbon dioxide enters the blood from Production of Formed Element
tissues. ● Hematopoiesis- the process that
produces formed elements.
○ continuous throughout our lives
○ After birth - confined primarily to red
bone marrow, but some white blood
cells are produced in lymphatic
tissues
● stem cells / hemocytoblasts -single
Formed Elements population of cells
● R BC / erythrocytes- most abundant of the
formed elements. Red Blood Cells
○ 95% of all the formed elements. ● N
ormal red blood cells are disk-shaped,
● 5% -WBC / leukocytes - Platelets / with edges that are thicker than the center
thrombocytes- cell fragments of the cell
Anatomy and Physiology
● T he biconcave shape increases the cell’s the hemoglobin. The remaining 7%
surface area compared to a flat disk of the of CO2 is transported dissolved in
same size plasma
● can bend or fold around its thin center Life history
●
● During their development, red blood cells ○ about 2.5 million red blood cells are
lose their nuclei and most of their destroyed every second
organelles. Consequently, they are unable ○ Stem cells form proerythroblasts -
to divide. give rise to the red blood cell line
● 120 days - Male RBC live ○ Red blood cell production depends
● 110 days - female RBC live on the presence of several vitamins
● Hemoglobin - ⅓ of RBC as well as sufficient iron.
○ Cell’s red color ○ requires the B vitamins folate and
● Functions: B12 - DNA
○ to transport oxygen from the lungs to ○ Iron- production of hemoglobin
the various tissues of the body and ○ Erythropoietin - stimulates red bone
to help transport carbon dioxide from marrow to produce more red blood
the tissues to the lungs. cells.
○ Oxygen transport is accomplished ○ when oxygen levels in the blood
when oxygen enters red blood cells decrease, the production of
and binds to hemoglobin erythropoietin increases, which
○ Globin- protein chain increases red blood cell production.
○ Heme- red pigment molecule; one ○ When red blood cells become old,
iron atom abnormal, or damaged, they are
○ Hemoglobin picks up oxygen in the removed from the blood by
lungs and releases oxygen in other macrophages located in the spleen
tissues and liver
○ Bright red- hemoglobin bound to ○ The heme molecules (minus iron)
O2 are converted to bilirubin
○ Darker red- hemoglobin w/o O2
○ 98.5% of the oxygen transported in
blood is bound to hemoglobin
molecules within red blood cells. The
remaining 1.5% of oxygen is
dissolved in plasma
○ mall amounts of iron are required in
the diet to replace the small amounts
lost in the urine and feces, but
otherwise the existing iron is
recycled, as described later in this
section
○ Carbon monoxide - a gas produced
by the incomplete combustion of
hydrocarbons
○ It binds to the iron in hemoglobin
about 210 times more readily than
does oxygen and does not tend to
unbind.
○ the hemoglobin bound to carbon
monoxide no longer transports
oxygen
○ Carbon dioxide transport involves
bicarbonate ions, hemoglobin, and
plasma.
○ The enzymecarbonic anhydrase-
found primarily inside red blood
cells, catalyzes a reaction that
converts carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O) into a hydrogen ion
(H+) and a bicarbonate ion (HCO3
−):CO2 + H2O ↔️H+ + HCO3 −
○ The remaining 30% of CO2 is
transported two ways. About 23% of
the CO2 in blood is transported
bound to hemoglobin or other blood
proteins. Carbon dioxide does not
bind to the same area of hemoglobin
molecules as oxygen. Instead, CO2
binds reversibly to the globin part of
Anatomy and Physiology
● T his constriction can close small vessels
completely and stop the flow of blood
through them.
● Vascular spasm is stimulated by chemicals
released by cells of the damaged blood
vessel wall and by platelets. For example,
platelets releasethromboxaneswhich are
derived from certain prostaglandins, and
endothelial (epithelial) cells lining blood
vessels release thepeptide endothelin
Both of these substances stimulate vascular
spasm.
Platelet Plug Formation
● accumulation of platelets that can seal up a
small break in a blood vessel.
● Platelet adhesion- platelets stick to the
White Blood Cells collagen exposed by blood vessel damage
s
● pherical cells that lack hemoglobin. ● Von Willebrand- a protein produced and
● Make up the buffy coat, a thin, white layer of secreted by blood vessel endothelial cells
cells between plasma and red blood cells ● forms a bridge between collagen and
● LARGER than rbc platelets by binding to platelet surface
● Has nucleus receptors and collagen. After platelets
● can leave the blood and travel by ameboid adhere to collagen, they become activated,
movement change shape, and release chemicals
● to protect the body against invading ● platelet release reaction- platelets release
microorganisms and other pathogens and chemicals, such as ADP and thromboxane
● to remove dead cells and debris from the ● fibrinogen receptors- bind to fibrinogen, a
tissues by phagocytosis. plasma protein.
● Granulocytes- large ● platelet aggregation -fibrinogen forms
● Agranulocytes- small bridges between the fibrinogen receptors of
● Dead neutrophils, cell debris, and fluid can numerous platelets, resulting in a platelet
accumulate as pus at sites of infections. plug.
latelets
P
● minute fragments of cells, each consisting
of a small amount of cytoplasm surrounded
by a cell membrane
Preventing blood loss
●
● Megakaryocytes- produced in the red
bone marrow from large cells
Blood clotting
● oagulation
C
● results in the formation of a clot
● Clot- a network of threadlike protein fibers
● Fibrin
○ protein fibers
○ traps blood cells, platelets and fluids
● clotting factors- formation of a blood clot
depends on a number of proteins found
within plasma
Stages
●
○ The chemical reactions can be
started in two ways: (a) Inactive
Preventing Blood loss clotting factors come in contact with
● T he body can tolerate a small amount of exposed connective tissue, resulting
blood loss and can produce new blood to in their activation, or (b) chemicals,
replace it. But a large amount of blood loss such as thromboplastin, are
can lead to death. released from injured tissues,
Vascular spasm causing activation of clotting factors.
● an immediate but temporary constriction of After the initial clotting factors are
a blood vessel that results when smooth activated, they in turn activate other
muscle within the wall of the vessel clotting factors. A series of reactions
contracts. results in which each clotting factor
activates the next until the clotting
Anatomy and Physiology
factor prothrombinase or
prothrombin activator is formed.
○ Prothrombinase converts an inactive
clotting factor calledprothrombinto
its active form, thrombin
○ Thrombin converts the plasma
protein fibrinogen to fibrin.
● Most clotting factors are manufactured in
the liver, and many of them require vitamin
K for their synthesis
● require Ca2+ and the chemicals released
from platelets.
● Control of Clot Formation
○ Anticoagulants- prevent clotting
factors from forming clots under
normal conditions
○ Antithrombin & Heparin- inactive
thrombin
○ Without thrombin, fibrinogen is not
converted to fibrin, and no clot forms
○ Thrombus- attached clot
○ Embolus- begins to float through
the circulation
● Clot Retraction and Fibrinolysis
○ Clot retraction- process after clot
formation Blood Grouping
○ During clot retraction, serum, which ● t ransfusion- the transfer of blood or blood
is plasma without the clotting factors, components from one individual to another.
is squeezed out of the clot. ● Infusion- the introduction of a fluid other
○ Retraction of the clot pulls the edges than blood, such as a saline or glucose
of the damaged blood vessel solution, into the blood
together, helping stop the flow of ● Early attempts to transfuse blood were often
blood, reducing the probability of unsuccessful because they resulted in
infection, and enhancing healing. transfusion reactions
○ Fibrinolysis- as the damaged ● transfusion reactions- caused by
tissue is repaired, clots are dissolved interactions between antigens and
by a process antibodies
○ Plasminogen- n inactive plasma ● Antigens- surfaces of red blood cells have
protein molecules
○ Plasmin- converted active form ● Antibodies- the plasma includes proteins
○ tissue plasminogen activator ● Antibodies bind to antigens
(t-PA)released from surrounding ● Agglutination- clumping of the cells
tissues can stimulate the conversion ● Hemolysis- combination of the antibodies
of plasminogen to plasmin. with the antigens can also initiate reactions -
○ Streptokinase- a bacterial rupture of the red blood cells.
enzyme, and t-PA, produced through ● Blood Groups- antigens on the surface of
genetic engineering, have been red blood cells have been categorized
used successfully to dissolve clots
ABO Blood Group
● A BO blood group system is used to
categorize human blood.
● The ABO blood types do not exist in equal
numbers.
● antibodies do not develop against an
antigen unless the body is exposed to that
antigen
● Donor - gives
● Recipient - receives
● Type O - Universal donors
Anatomy and Physiology
Diagnostic Blood test
Type and Crossmatch
H Blood Group
R ● B lood typing- determines the ABO and Rh
● was first studied in the rhesus monkey blood groups of a blood sample
● Rh-positive if they have certain Rh antigens ● Crossmatch- the donor’s blood cells are
on the surface of their red blood cells, and mixed with the recipient’s serum, and the
they are Rh-negative if they do not have donor’s serum is mixed with the recipient’s
these Rh antigens. cells.
● EXAMPLE: type A in the ABO blood group Complete Blood Count
and Rh-positive is said to be A-positive ● complete blood count (CBC) - an analysis
● AB-negative- rarest in US of blood that provides much useful
● Antibodies against the Rh antigens do not information.
develop unless an Rh-negative person is ● CBC consists of a red blood cell count,
exposed to Rh-positive red blood cells. hemoglobin and hematocrit measurements,
● Can occur during pregnancy and a white blood cell count
● When an Rh-negative person receives a ● Red Blood Count
transfusion of Rh-positive blood, the ○ Male - 4.6–6.2 million red blood cells
recipient becomes sensitized to the Rh per microliter (μL) of blood
antigens and produces anti-Rh antibodies. If ○ Female - 4.2–5.4 million per μL of
the Rh-negative person is unfortunate blood.
enough to receive a second transfusion of ○ Erythrocytosis -an overabundance
Rh-positive blood after becoming sensitized, of red blood cells leading to
a transfusion reaction results increased blood viscosity, reduced
● Rh incompatibility can pose a major flow rates and, if severe, plugged
problem in a pregnancy when the mother is capillaries.
Rh-negative and the fetus is Rh-positive ○ Blood doping- an intentional
● hemolytic disease of the newborn process that serves to increase the
(HDN)/erythroblastosis fetalis - number of circulating red blood cells.
● Hemoglobin movement
○ terms of grams of hemoglobin per
100 mL of blood.
○ Male - 14–18 grams (g) per 100 mL
of blood
○ Female - 12–16 g per 100 mL of
blood.
○ Anemia- reduced number of red
blood cells or a reduced amount of
hemoglobin in each red blood cell
● Hematocrit Measurement
○ Hematocrit- percentage of the total
blood volume that is composed of
red blood cells
○ to place blood in a capillary tube and
spin it in acentrifuge.
Anatomy and Physiology
○ M ale - 40–52% of the total blood ○ c alculates how long it takes for the
volume blood to start clotting, which is
○ Female - 38–48% normally 9–12 seconds.
○ affected by the number and size of ○ Prothrombin timeis determined by
red blood cells because it is based adding thromboplastin to whole
on volume. plasma.
○ Thromboplastinis a chemical
released from injured tissues that
starts the process of clotting
Blood Chemistry
● The composition of materials dissolved or
suspended in plasma (e.g., glucose, urea
nitrogen, bilirubin, and cholesterol) can be
used to assess the functioning and status of
the body’s systems.
Chapter 12: Heart
● The heart of a healthy adult, at rest, pumps
approximately 5 liters (L) of blood per
minute.
● Together, the heart, the blood vessels, and
the blood make up the cardiovascular
system
● Pulmonary Circulation- The right side of
the heart pumps blood to the lungs and
● White Blood Count back to the left side of the heart through
○ measures the total number of white vessels
blood cells in the blood ● Systemic Circulation- left side of the
○ 5000–9000 white blood cells per heart pumps blood to all other tissues of the
microliter of blood body and back to the right side of the heart
○ Leukopenia- lower than normal through vessels
WBC resulting from decreased
production or destruction of the red
marrow.
○ Leukocytosis- an abnormally high
WBC
○ Leukemia- cancer of the red
marrow characterized by abnormal
production of one or more of the
white blood cell types, can cause
leukocytosis.
Differential White Blood Count
● determines the percentage of each of the
five kinds of white blood cells.
● Normally, neutrophils account for 60–70%,
lymphocytes 20–25%, monocytes 3–8%,
eosinophils 2–4%, and basophils 0.5–1% of
all white blood cells.
● For example, if a bacterial infection is
present, the neutrophil count is often greatly
increased, whereas in allergic reactions, the
eosinophil and basophil counts are elevated
Clotting
● Platelet Count
○ A normal platelet count is
250,000–400,000 platelets per
microliter of blood.
○ thrombocytopenia the platelet count
is greatly reduced, resulting in Functions of Heart
chronic bleeding through small
● enerating blood pressure
G
vessels and capillaries. ● Routing blood
○ It can be caused by decreased ● Ensuring one-way blood flow
platelet production as a result of ● Regulating blood supply.
hereditary disorders, lack of vitamin
B12 (pernicious anemia), drug SIZE, FORM, AND LOCATION OF THE HEART
therapy, or radiation therapy ● Adult heart- shaped like a blunt cone and
● Prothrombin time measurement is approximately the size of a closed fist.
● Apex- blunt, rounded point of the heart (left
side)
Anatomy and Physiology
● B ase- larger, flat part at the opposite end ● c oronary sulcus- extends around the
of the heart heart, separating the atria from the
● The heart is located in the thoracic cavity ventricles.
between the two pleural cavities that ● anterior interventricular sulcus- extends
surround the lungs. inferiorly from the coronary sulcus on the
● Mediastinum- Midline portion anterior surface of the heart
● Pericardial cavity- surrounds the heart ● posterior interventricular sulcus -
● The heart lies obliquely (at an angle) in the extends inferiorly from the coronary sulcus
mediastinum, with its base directed on the posterior surface of the heart
posteriorly and slightly superiorly and its ● superior vena cava and inferior vena
apex directed anteriorly and slightly cava -carry blood from the body to the right
inferiorly. atrium
● four pulmonaryveins- carry blood from
the lungs to the left atrium
● the great vessels or great arteries - two
arteries that carry blood away from the carry
blood away from the heart
● Pulmonary trunk, arising from the right
ventricle, splits into the right and left
pulmonary arteries, which carry blood to
the lungs.
● aorta- arising from the left ventricle, carries
blood to the rest of the body
ANATOMY OF THE HEART
T
● he heart lies in thepericardial cavity.
● Thepericardial cavity is formed by the
pericardium, or pericardial sac, which
surrounds the heart and anchors it within
the mediastinum
● fibrous pericardium
○ outer layer is tough, fibrous
connective tissue
● serous pericardium
○ inner layer consists of flat epithelial
cells with a thin layer of connective
tissue
○ Parietal pericardium - part lining the
fibrous pericardium
○ Visceral Pericardium/epicardium -
part covering the heart surface
● parietal and visceral pericardia-
continuous with each other where the great
vessels enter or leave the heart.
● Pericardial Fluid
○ Fluid
○ produced by the serous pericardium
○ helps reduce friction as the heart
moves within the pericardium.
XTERNAL ANATOMY
E
● right and left atria- located at the base of
the heart
right and left ventricles- extend from the
● Heart Chambers and Internal Anatomy
base of the heart toward the apex
Anatomy and Physiology
● B lood enters the atria of the heart through
blood vessels calledveins.
● Interatrial (between the atria) septum-
The two atria are separated from each other
by a partition
● interventricular (between the ventricles)
septum- two ventricles are separated from
each other by the muscular
● Thewall of the left ventricleis thicker than
the wall of the right ventricle,
● wall of the left ventriclecontracts more
forcefully and generates a greater blood
pressure than the wall of the right ventricle.
● However, the left and right ventricles pump
nearly the same volume of blood.
● The higher pressure generated by the left
ventricle moves blood through the larger
systemic circulation, whereas the lower
pressure generated by the right ventricle
moves blood through the smaller pulmonary
circulation
● Anatrioventricular (AV) valveis located
between each atrium and ventricle.
Specifically, the AV valve between the right
atrium andtricuspid valvehas three cusps
found in the the right ventricle
● The AV valve between the left atrium and
the left ventricle has two cusps and is called
thebicuspid valve or mitral
● These valves allow blood to flow from the
atria into the ventricles but prevent it from
flowing back into the atria
● each ventricle contains cone-shaped,
muscular pillars calledpapillary muscles.
● chordae tendineae - muscles are attached
by thin, strong, connective tissue strings
● Asemilunar valveis located between each
ventricle and its associated great artery.
● Thepulmonary semilunar valveis located
between the right ventricle and the
pulmonary trunk Route of Blood Flow Through the Heart
● aortic semilunar valve is located between
the left ventricle and aorta
● three pocketlike semilunar
(half-moon-shaped) cusps
● plate of connective tissue, sometimes called
thecardiac skeleton, or fibrous skeleton,
consists mainly of fibrous rings that
surround the atrioventricular and semilunar
valves and give them solid support
Anatomy and Physiology
Blood Supply to the Heart ● T
rabeculae Carneae- surfaces of the
● T wo coronary arteries supply blood to the interior walls of the ventricles are modified
wall of the heart by ridges and columns of cardiac muscle
● Thecoronary arteriesoriginate from the
base of the aorta, just above the aortic
semilunar valves.
● Theleft coronary arteryoriginates on the
left side of the aorta. It has three major
branches
● Theanterior interventricular arterylies in
the anterior interventricular sulcus
● thecircumflex arteryextends around the
coronary sulcus on the left to the posterior
surface of the heart
● left marginal arteryextends inferiorly
along the lateral wall of the left ventricle
from the circumflex artery.
● The branches of the left coronary artery
supply much of the anterior wall of the heart
and most of the left ventricle. Cardiac Muscle
● Theright coronary arteryoriginates on the ● e longated, branching cells that contain one,
right side of the aorta. It extends around the or occasionally two, centrally located nuclei
coronary sulcus on the right to the posterior ● contain actin and myosin myofilaments
surface of the heart and gives rise to the organized to form sarcomeres, which are
posterior interventricular artery, which lies in joined end-to-end to form myofibrils
the posterior interventricular sulcus. ● Intercalated disks- cell-to-cell contacts
● Theright marginal arteryextends inferiorly ● Gap Junctions- Specialized cell
along the lateral wall of the right ventricle. membrane structures in the intercalated
The right coronary artery and its branches disks
supply most of the wall of the right ventricle. ● Cardiac muscleis striated
● In comparison, blood flowing through ● it depends on ATP for energy and on
arteries to skeletal muscle gives up only aerobic metabolism.
about 25% of its O2 . The percentage of O2 ● Cardiac musclecells are joined by
the blood releases to skeletal muscle intercalated disks that allow action
increases to 70% or more during exercise, potentials to be propagated throughout the
but the percentage of O2 the blood releases heart
to cardiac muscle cannot increase
substantially during exercise. Action Potentials in Cardiac Muscle
● cardiac veins- drain blood from the cardiac ● d epolarization phase followed by a period of
muscle. Their pathways are nearly parallel slow repolarization called theplateau
to the coronary arteries, and most of them phase. At the end of the plateau phase, a
drain blood into the coronary sinus, a large rapid repolarization phase takes place.
vein located within the coronary sulcus on During the final repolarization
the posterior aspect of the heart. ● Action potentials in cardiac muscle are
● Blood flows from the coronary sinus into prolonged compared to those in skeletal
the right atrium muscle and have a depolarization phase, a
plateau phase, and a repolarization phase.
● The depolarization is due mainly to opening
of the voltage gated Na+ channels, and the
plateau phase is due to opened
voltage-gated Ca2+ channels.
● Repolarization at the end of the plateau
phase is due to the opening of K+ channels
for a brief period.
● The prolonged action potential in cardiac
muscle ensures that contraction and
relaxation occur and prevents tetany.
● The SA node located in the upper wall of
HISTOLOGY OF THE HEART the right atrium is the normal pacemaker of
● E picardium / visceral pericardium- a the heart, and cells of the SA node have
thin, serous membrane forming the smooth ● refractory period, like that of action
outer surface of the heart potentials in skeletal muscle and in neurons.
● Myocardium- middle, cardiac muscle cells The refractory period lasts about as long as
and is responsible for contraction of the the plateau phase of the action potential in
heart chambers cardiac muscle
● Endocardium- smooth inner surface of the
heart chambers and allows blood to move
easily through the heart
Anatomy and Physiology
lectrocardiogram
E
● produce electrical currents that can be
measured at the surface of the body.
Electrodes placed on the body surface and
attached to a recording device can detect
the small electrical changes resulting from
the action potentials in all of the cardiac
muscle cells.
● can reveal abnormal heart rates or rhythms
● The normal ECG consists of aP wave, a
QRS complex, and aT wave.
● TheP waveresults from depolarization of
the atrial myocardium, and the beginning of
the P wave precedes the onset of atrial
contraction.
● The QRS complex consists of three
individual waves: theQ, R, and S waves.
● TheQRS complexresults from
depolarization of the ventricles, and the
beginning of the QRS complex precedes
ventricular contraction.
● TheT waverepresents repolarization of the
ventricles, and the beginning of the T wave
precedes ventricular relaxation.
● A wave representing repolarization of the
atria cannot be seen because it occurs
during the QRS complex
onduction System of the Heart
C ● PQ interval -beginning of the QRS
● Contraction of the atria and ventricles is complex / PR interval
coordinated by specialized cardiac muscle ● TheQT intervalextends from the beginning
cells in the heart wall of the QRS complex to the end of the T
● sinoatrial (SA) node, which functions as wave and represents the length of time
the heart’s pacemaker, is located in the required for ventricular depolarization and
superior wall of the right atrium and initiates repolarization.
the contraction of the heart.
● atrioventricular (AV) node, is located in
the lower portion of the right atrium. When
action potentials reach the AV node, they
spread slowly through it and
● then into a bundle of specialized cardiac
muscle called theatrioventricular (AV)
bundle.
● The AV bundle then divides into two
branches of conducting tissue, called the
left and right bundle branches
● Purkinje fibers -small bundles
● Etopic beat- When action potentials
originate in an area of the heart other than
the SA node
● Fibrillation- Ectopic beats may cause very
small portions of the heart to contract
rapidly and independently of all other areas.
Anatomy and Physiology
Intrinsic Regulation of the Heart
ARDIAC CYCLE
C ● Intrinsic regulation -refers to mechanisms
● Sysrole - contracts contained within the heart itself.
Diastole - relax
● ● The amount of blood in the ventricles at the
end of ventricular diastole determines the
degree to which cardiac muscle fibers are
stretched.
● Preload- the degree to which the
ventricular walls are stretched at the end of
diastole
● Venous return- the amount of blood that
returns to the heart.
● If venous return increases, the heart fills to
a greater volume and stretches the cardiac
muscle fibers, producing an increased
preload
● Starling’s law of the heart- relationship
between preload and stroke volume
● Afterload- the pressure against which the
ventricles must pump blood.
xtrinsic Regulation of the Heart
E
● Extrinsic regulation- mechanisms
external to the heart, such as either nervous
or chemical regulation.
● Nervous influences of heart activity are
carried through the autonomic nervous
system
● Stimulation by sympathetic nerve fibers
causes the heart rate and the stroke volume
to increase, whereas stimulation by
parasympathetic nerve fibers causes the
heart rate to decrease
● Baroreceptor reflex- a mechanism of the
nervous system that plays an important role
HEART SOUNDS in regulating heart function
● s tethoscope- was originally developed to ● Baroreceptor- stretch receptors that
listen to the sounds of the lungs and heart monitor blood pressure in the aorta and in
and is now used to listen to other sounds of the wall of the internal carotid arteries,
the body as well. which carry blood to the brain
● Lubb- first heart sound ● cardioregulatory center- receives and
● Dubb- second heart sound integrates action potentials from the
● ventricular systole occurs between the first baroreceptors.
and second heart sounds
● Incompetent valve- heart valve does not
close completely
● Murmurs- Abnormal heart sounds
REGULATION OF HEART FUNCTION
● C ardiac output (CO) - volume of blood
pumped by either ventricle of the heart each
minute.
● Stroke volume (SV)- volume of blood
pumped per ventricle each time the heart
contracts,
● heart rate (HR) -number of times the heart
contracts each minute.
Anatomy and Physiology
Effects of Aging on the Heart
● B y age 70, cardiac output has often
decreased by one-third.
● Hypertrophy of the left ventricle can cause
pulmonary edema.
● Decrease in the maximum heart rate of
30–60% by age 85 leads to decreased
cardiac output.
● The aortic semilunar valve can become
stenotic or incompetent.
● Coronary artery disease and congestive
heart failure can develop.
● Aerobic exercise improves the functional
capacity of the heart at all ages
Chapter 13: Blood vessels and Circulation
Functions of circulatory system
● B lood vessels outside the heart are divided
into two classes
1. pulmonary vessels- which
transport blood from the right
ventricle of the heart through the
lungs and back to the left atrium
2. systemic vessels- which transport
blood from the left ventricle of the
heart through all parts of the body
and back to the right atrium
● Carries blood
● Exchanges nutrients, waste products, and
gasses with tissues.
● Transports substances.
● Helps regulate blood pressure.
● Directs blood flow to the tissues
unctions of circulatory system
F
Arteries
●
○ carry blood away from the heart
○ oxygenated
Anatomy and Physiology
● Capillaries Capillaries
○ exchange of substances such as ● p recapillary sphincters -Blood flow
O2, CO2, nutrients, and other waste through capillary networks is regulated by
products occurs between the blood smooth muscle cells
and the tissue fluid. ● Capillary walls consist of endothelium-
○ thinner walls than do arteries simple squamous epithelium surrounded by
● Veins delicate loose connective tissue
○ Carry blood to the heart
● The thin walls of capillaries facilitate
○ Deoxygenated
○ less elastic tissue diffusion between the capillaries and
● Tunica intima surrounding cells
○ innermost layer
○ simple squamous epithelial cells,
● Tunica media
○ middle layer
○ smooth muscle cells
● Tunica adventitia
○ dense connective tissue
○ outermost layer
Arteries
● Elastic arteries
○ largest-diameter arteries
○ thickest walls
○ Stretch Veins
● Muscular arteries ● B lood flows from capillaries into venules
○ Medium-sized - distributing arteries and from venules into small veins
○ Small arteries ● Venules
○ Thick diameter
○ have a diameter slightly larger than
○ Vasoconstriction - Contraction of the
smooth muscle in blood vessels that of capillaries
○ Vasodilation - Relaxation of the ○ endothelium resting on a delicate
smooth muscle in blood vessels connective tissue layer
● Arterioles ● Small veins
○ transport blood from small arteries to ○ larger in diameter than venules
capillaries ○ All tunics
○ smallest arteries
● Medium-sized veins
○ collect blood from small veins and
deliver it to large veins
● Veins that have diameters greater than 2
mm contain valves
● Each valve consists of folds in the tunica
intima that form two flaps
Anatomy and Physiology
BLOOD VESSELS OF THE PULMONARY ○ It extends through the thorax and
CIRCULATION abdomen to the upper margin of the
● pulmonary circulation- system of blood pelvis.
vessels that carries blood from the right
○ Thoracic aorta- e part of the
ventricle of the heart to the lungs and back
to the left atrium of the heart. descending aorta that extends
● Pulmonary Trunk- Blood from the right through the thorax to diaphragm
ventricle is pumped into a short vessel ○ Two common iliac arteries-
● Right and left pulmonary arteries abdominal aorta
○ pulmonary trunk then branches into Arterial aneurysm- localized dilation of an
●
them which to the right and left artery that usually develops in response to
lungs, respectively
trauma or a congenital (existing at birth)
○ Deoxygenated
● Pulmonary Veins weakness of the artery wall.
○ exit the lungs
○ carry the oxygenated blood to the
left atrium.
BLOOD VESSELS OF THE SYSTEMIC
CIRCULATION: ARTERIES
● systemic circulation- system of blood
vessels that carries blood from the left
ventricle of the heart to the tissues of the
● PV ➡️ ➡️ ➡️ LA
of the body
LV aorta ➡️
body and back to the right atrium.
all portions
Arteries of the Head and Neck
● Branches of aortic arch
○ brachiocephalic artery
○ left common carotid artery
○ left subclavian
● Brachiocephalic artery
○ first branch off aortic arch
○ supplies blood to right side of head
and neck
● There is no brachiocephalic artery on the
left side of the body
● Left common carotid artery
Aorta
○ 2nd branch off aortic arch
● ascending aorta
○ passes superiorly from the left ○ supplies blood to the left side of
ventricle. head and neck
○ right and left coronary arteries ● Left subclavian artery
arise from the base of the ascending ○ 3rd branch off aortic arch
aorta and supply blood to the heart ○ supplies blood to left upper limbs
● Aortic arch ● Right common carotid artery
○ Three major arteries, which carry ○ branches off brachiocephalic artery
blood to the head and upper limbs, ○ supplies blood to right side of head
○ brachiocephalic artery, the left and neck
common carotid artery, and the left ● Right subclavian artery
subclavian artery ○ branches off brachiocephalic artery
● descending aorta ○ supplies blood to right upper limbs
○ longest part of the aorta.
Anatomy and Physiology
● c arotid sinus- formed base of each
internal carotid artery is slightly dilated
● Vertebral arteries - branch from the
subclavian arteries and pass to the head
through the transverse foramina of the
cervical vertebrae
● Basilar artery- located along the anterior,
inferior surface of the brainstem
Thoracic Aorta and Its Branches
● visceral arteries
○ supply the thoracic organs
● parietal arteries
○ supply the thoracic wall.
● visceral branches of the thoracic aorta
supply the esophagus, the trachea, the
parietal pericardium, and part of the lung.
● posterior intercostal
○ major parietal arteries
○ arteries, which arise from the
thoracic aorta and extend between
the ribs
○ They supply the intercostal muscles,
the vertebrae, the spinal cord, and
the deep muscles of the back.
● superior phrenic arteries
○ supply the diaphragm
● internal thoracic arteries
○ branches of the subclavian arteries.
● anterior intercostal arteries
○ extend between the ribs to supply
the anterior chest wall
Abdominal Aorta and Its Branches
Arteries of the upper limb ● Celiac trunk arteries
● Axillary arteries ○ supply blood to stomach, pancreas,
○ continuation of subclavian spleen, liver, upper duodenum
○ supply blood deep in clavicle ● Superior mesenteric arteries
● Brachial arteries ○ supply blood to small intestines and
○ continuation of axillary upper portion of colon
○ where blood pressure ● Inferior mesenteric arteries
measurements are taken ○ supply blood to colon
● Ulnar arteries ● Renal arteries
○ branch of brachial artery ○ supply blood to kidneys
○ near elbow ● Hepatic arteries
● Radial arteries ○ supply blood to liver
○ branch of brachial artery ● Testicular arteries
○ supply blood to forearm and hand ○ supply blood to testes
○ pulse taken here ● Ovarian arteries
○ supply blood to ovaries
Anatomy and Physiology
● Inferior phrenic arteries
○ supply blood to diaphragm
● Lumbar arteries
○ supply blood to lumbar vertebra and
back muscles
● median sacral artery
○ supplies the inferior vertebrae.
Arteries of the Pelvis
● The abdominal aorta divides at the level of
the fifth lumbar vertebra into two common
iliac arteries
● Common iliac arteries
○ branches from abdominal aorta
○ divides into internal iliac arteries
● External iliac arteries
○ division of common iliac artery BLOOD VESSELS OF THE SYSTEMIC
○ supply blood to lower limbs CIRCULATION: VEINS
● Internal iliac arteries ● Veins return blood to the heart.
○ division of common iliac ● In the systemic circulation, the blood
○ supply blood to pelvic area returning to the heart is deoxygenated.
● In the pulmonary circulation, the blood
returning to the heart in the pulmonary veins
is oxygenated
● Superior vena cava
○ returns blood from head, neck,
thorax, and right upper limbs
○ empties into right atrium of heart
● Inferior vena cava
○ returns blood from abdomen, pelvis,
lower limbs
○ empties into right atrium of heart
Veins of the Head and Neck
● External jugular vein
○ drain blood from head and neck
○ empties into subclavian veins
● Internal jugular vein
○ drain blood from brain, face, neck
○ empty into subclavian veins
● Subclavian veins
○ forms brachiocephalic veins
● Brachiocephalic veins
rteries of the Lower Limbs
A ○ join to form superior vena cava
● Femoral arteries
○ supply to thigh
● Popliteal arteries
○ supply blood to knee
● Anterior and posterior arteries
○ supply blood to leg and foot
● Fibular arteries
○ supply blood to lateral leg and foot
eins of the Upper Limb
V
● Brachial veins
○ empty into axillary vein
Cephalic veins
●
Anatomy and Physiology
○ e mpty into axillary vein and basilic ● great saphenous vein
vein, which becomes the axillary ○ originates over the dorsal and
vein, are the major superficial veins medial side of the foot and ascends
● Median cubital veins along the medial side of the leg and
○ connects to cephalic vein thigh to empty into the femoral vein.
○ near elbow ● small saphenous vein
● Cubital Fossa ○ begins over the lateral side of the
○ site for drawing blood. foot and joins the popliteal vein,
Veins of the Thorax which becomes the femoral vein.
● Right and left brachiocephalic veins The femoral vein empties into the
○ drain blood from thorax into superior external iliac vein
vena cava PHYSIOLOGY OF CIRCULATION
● Azygos veins ● Adequate blood flow is required to provide
○ drain blood from thorax into superior nutrients and O2 to the tissues and to
vena cava remove the waste products of metabolism
from the tissues.
● Internal thoracic veins
Blood Pressure
○ empty into brachiocephalic veins ● measure of the force blood exerts against
● Posterior intercostal veins the blood vessel walls.
○ drain blood from posterior thoracic ● Systolic pressure- contraction of heart
wall ● Diastolic pressure- relaxation of heart
○ drains into azygos vein on right side ● Average Blood Pressure: 120/80
● Hemiazygos vein ● auscultatory method to determine blood
○ receives blood from azygos vein of pressure
left side ● A blood pressure cuff connected to a
Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis sphygmomanometer is wrapped around the
● Common iliac vein
patient’s arm, and a stethoscope is placed
○ formed from external and internal
over the brachial artery.
iliac
● Korotkoff sounds
○ empty into inferior vena cava
○ turbulence produces vibrations in the
● External iliac vein
blood and surrounding tissues that
○ drains blood from lower limbs•empty
can be heard through the
into common iliac vein
stethoscope
● Internal iliac vein
○ drains blood from pelvic region
○ empties into common iliac vein
● Renal vein
○ drains blood from kidneys
● Hepatic Portal System
○ Liver is a major processing center
for substances absorbed by
intestinal tract.Portal system
○ vascular system that begins with
capillaries in viscera and ends with
capillaries in liver
○ uses splenic vein and superior
mesenteric vein
Veins of the Lower Limbs Pulse Pressure
● Femoral veins ● the difference between systolic and diastolic
○ drain blood from thigh and empty blood pressures.
into external iliac vein ● Example - 120 for systolic/80 for diastolic;
● Great saphenous veins pulse pressure is 40 mm Hg
○ drain from foot and empty into ● pulse pressure pointscan be felt near
femoral vein large arteries
● Popliteal veins ● Ejection of blood from the left ventricle into
○ drain blood from knee and empty the aorta produces a pressure wave, or
into femoral vein pulse, which travels rapidly along the
Veins of the Upper Limb arteries.
● The superficial veins consist of the great
and small saphenous veins.
Anatomy and Physiology
Nervous and Hormonal Control of Blood Flow
● Vasomotor center
○ sympathetic division
○ controls blood vessel diameter
● Vasomotor tone
○ state of partial constriction of blood
vessels
○ increase causes blood vessels to
constrict and blood pressure to go
up
● The sympathetic division also regulates
hormonal control of blood flow through the
Capillary Exchange release of epinephrine and norepinephrine
1
● 0 billion capillaries in the body from the adrenal medulla.
● Blood pressure forces fluid out of the ● In most blood vessels, these hormones
capillary, and osmosis moves fluid into the cause constriction, which reduces blood
capillary. flow.
● Most exchange across capillary wall occurs ● In some tissues, such as skeletal muscle
by diffusion and cardiac muscle, these hormones cause
● Blood pressure, capillary permeability and the blood vessels to dilate, increasing blood
osmosis affect movement of fluids across flow
capillary walls.
● Net movement of fluid from blood into
tissues
● Fluid gained in tissues is removed by
lymphatic system
REGULATION OF ARTERIAL PRESSURE
An adequate blood pressure is required to
●
maintain blood flow through the blood
CONTROL OF BLOOD FLOW IN TISSUES vessels of the body.
● Several regulatory mechanisms ensure that
Local Control of Blood Flow blood pressure remains adequate for this
● L ocal control achieved by relaxation and task.
contraction of precapillary sphincters ● Mean arterial pressure (MAP)
● Sphincters relax blood flow increases ○ is a calculated value that reflects an
● Precapillary sphincters controlled by average arterial pressure in various
metabolic needs of tissues vessels of the body
● Concentration of nutrients also control blood ○ the body's MAP is equal to the
flow cardiac output (CO) times the
● Blood flow increases when oxygen levels peripheral resistance (PR).
decrease ○ Cardiac output is equal to the heart
rate (HR) times the stroke volume
(SV).
○ Peripheral resistance is the
resistance to blood flow in all the
blood vessels.
○ MAP =CO ×PR
○ The MAP changes in response to
changes in HR, SV, or PR.
○ The mean arterial pressure changes
over our lifetime.
○ MAP is about 70 mm Hg at birth.
Anatomy and Physiology
○ It is maintained at about 95 mm Hg
from adolescence to middle age,
and may reach 110 mm Hg in a
healthy older person
Baroreceptor Reflexes
● activate responses to blood pressure in
normal range
● Baroreceptorsrespond to stretch in
arteries due to increased pressure ● R
enin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone
● Located in carotid sinuses and aortic arch Mechanism
● Change peripheral resistance, heart rate, ○ Reduce blood flow causes kidneys
stroke volume in response to blood to release renin
pressure ○ Renin acts on angiotensinogen to
produce angiotensin I
○ Angiotensin-converting enzyme
converts angiotensin I to angiotensin
II
○ Angiotensin II causes
vasoconstriction
○ Angiotensin II acts on adrenal cortex
to release aldosterone
○ Aldosterone acts on kidneys causes
them to conserve sodium and water
hemoreceptor Reflexes
C ○ Result less water lost in urine and
● Chemoreceptors blood pressure maintained
○ sensitive to changes in blood
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH
○ located in carotid bodies and aortic
bodies which lie near carotid sinuses
and aortic arch
They send action potentials along sensory
●
nerve to medulla oblongata
Hormonal Mechanisms
● Adrenal Medullary Mechanism
○ Stimuli increase sympathetic
stimulation to adrenal medulla
○ Adrenal medulla secretes
● Antidiuretic Hormone Mechanism
epinephrine and norepinephrine into
○ Nerve cells in hypothalamus release
blood
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) when
○ This causes increased heart rate
concentration of solutes in plasma
and stroke volume and
increases or blood pressure
vasoconstriction
decrease
○ Vasodilation of blood vessels in
○ ADH acts of kidneys and they
skeletal and cardiac muscle
absorb more water (decrease urine
volume)
○ Result is maintain blood volume and
blood pressure
Anatomy and Physiology
Chapter 14: Lymphatic system and Immunity
UNCTIONS OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
F
● Pathogens- Any substance or
microorganism that causes disease or
damage to the tissues of the body
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE BLOOD VESSELS ● Lymphatic system- important for the
● Arteriosclerosis protection of the body, but in addition to
○ makes arteries less elastic that, this system carries out other functions.
● Atherosclerosis ● Lymph- fluid inside the lymphatic
○ type of arteriosclerosis capillaries
○ from deposit of materials in artery ● Substances in plasma, such as ions,
walls (plaque) nutrients, gases, and some proteins, pass
● Factors that contribute to atherosclerosis from blood capillaries into the interstitial
○ lack of exercise, smoking, obesity, spaces, and then into lymphatic capillaries
diet high in cholesterol and trans to become part of the lymph
fats, some genetics ● substances such as hormones, enzymes,
and waste products, derived from cells
within the tissues, are also part of the
lymph.
● Lacteals- lymphatic vessels
● Chyle- lipid content
1. Fluid balance - 30L per day
2. Lipid absorption
3. Denfense
ANATOMY OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Lymphatic Capillaries and Vessel
● lymphatic system
○ carries fluid in one direction, from
tissues to the circulatory system.
● Lymphatic Capillaries
○ tiny, closed-ended vessels
consisting of simple squamous
epithelium
○ More permeable
Anatomy and Physiology
In most tissues
○ Reticular fibers
○
● Lymphatic vessels ● Lymphocytes
○ resemble small veins ○ originate from red bone marrow
○ one-way valves ○ carried by the blood to lymphatic
○ lymphatic capillaries join to form organs.
larger ○ Develop from stem cells
Right Lymphatic Duct
● Tonsils
●
○ Lymphatic vessels from the right ○ Palatine Tonsil- each side of the
upper limb and the right half of the posterior opening of the oral cavity
head, neck, and chest ○ Pharyngeal Tonsil- near the
○ empties into the right subclavian internal opening of the nasal cavity
vein. ■ Adenoid -when the
● Thoracic Duct pharyngeal tonsil is enlarged
○ where enter Lymphatic vessels from ○ Lingual Tonsil- posterior surface of
the rest of the body the tongue.
○ empties into the left subclavian vein ○ Tonsillectomy- removal of the
pharyngeal tonsils
○ Adenoidectomy- removal of the
palatine tonsil
● Lymph Nodes
○ rounded structures
○ varying from the size
○ distributed along the various
lymphatic vessels
○ Found throughout the body
○ lymph passes through at least one
lymph node before entering the
blood
○ Capsule- dense connective tissue
○ Trabeculae- Extensions of the
capsule
● Lymphatic nodules- dense aggregations
of tissue
● Lymphatic sinuses- spaces between the
lymphatic tissue that contain macrophages
on a network of fibers.
Lymphatic Capillaries and Vessel ● Lymph flows through lymph nodes passing
● Lymphatic organs through the different areas
○ the tonsils, the lymph nodes, the ● to activate the immune system.
spleen, and the thymus. ● Germinal Centers- lymphatic nodules
● Lymphatic Tissue containing the rapidly dividing lymphocytes
○ housing many lymphocytes and ● The second function of the lymph nodes is
other defense cells, such as to remove pathogens from the lymph
macrophages. through the action of macrophages
Anatomy and Physiology
Overview of the Lymphatic System
● Spleen
○ roughly the size of a clenched fist
○ located in the left, superior corner of
the abdominal cavity
○ The spleen filters blood instead of
lymph.
○ White pulp- lymphatic tissue
surrounding the arteries within the
spleen.
○ Red pulp- associated with the
veins.
○ detect and respond to foreign
substances
○ destroy old and damaged red blood
cells.
○ a blood reservoir
○ holding a small volume of blood
● Thymus
○ bilobed gland roughly triangular in
shape
○ superior mediastinum
○ Cortex- formed dark-staining areas
○ Medulla- lighter-staining, central
portion of the lobules
○ site for the maturation of a class of
T cells
○ B cells
■ originate from stem cells
■ mature in red bone marrow.
■ Move to lymphatic tissue
after mature
■ Production of antibodies
○ T cells
■ Pre - produced in red bone
marrow and migrate to the
thymus
■ Mature in thymus gland
■ Move to lymphatic tissue
after mature
Anatomy and Physiology
○ m olecules responsible for many
aspects of innate immunity.
○ destroy pathogens or prevent their
entry into the cells
○ Lysozymes- tears and saliva kills
certain bacteria
○ Mucous membrane- prevents the
entry of some pathogens.
○ Histamine- promote inflammation
by causing vasodilation
○ Interferons- proteins that protect
the body against viral infections
○ Complement - group of more than
20 proteins found in plasma.
■ complement proteins
circulate in the blood in an
inactive form
White blood cells
●
○ produced in red bone marrow and
lymphatic tissue and released into
the blood.
○ Chemotaxis- movement of white
blood cells toward these chemicals
○ Phagocytosis- ingestion and
destruction of particles by cells
(phagocytes)
○ Neutrophils- first white blood cells
to enter infected tissues from the
blood in large numbers
○ Pus- accumulation of fluid, dead
neutrophils, and other cells at a site
of infection.
○ Macrophages
■ monocytes that leave the
Immunity blood, enter tissues, and
● ability to resist damage from pathogens enlarge about fivefold.
● Innate Immunity ■ Mononuclear phagocytic
○ nonspecific resistance system - monocytes &
○ body recognizes and destroys macrophages
certain pathogens ■ Dust cells- lungs
○ response is the same ■ Kupffer cells -liver
● Adaptive immunity ■ Microglia- CNS
○ body recognizes and destroys ■ can ingest
pathogens, but the response to them ■ remove materials from lymph
improves each time the pathogen is in lymph nodes
encountered ■ blood in the spleen and liver.
● Specificity ○ Basophils
○ ability of adaptive immunity to ■ Red bone marrow
recognize a particular substance ■ Motile WBC
● Memory ■ leave the blood and enter
○ ability of adaptive immunity to infected tissues
“remember” previous encounters ■ Mast cell- non motile cells
Innate Immunity ■ Can release histamine &
● Physical barriers leukotrienes
○ prevent pathogens and chemicals ○ Eosinophils
from entering the body ■ Red bone marrow
○ Skin and mucous membrane ■ inflammation associated with
○ Tears, saliva, urinary wash allergies and asthma
● Chemical Mediators ○ Natural Killer cells
Anatomy and Physiology
R
○ ed bone marrow ○ r ecognition of tumor antigens can
○ Type of lymphocyte result in destruction of the tumor
○ recognize classes of cells, such as ○ Autoimmune disease - self antigens
tumor cells or virus infected cells stimulate unwanted destruction of
○ Release lysis cells normal tissue.
Inflammatory Response ● Antibody-mediated immunity
● Chemicals and cells due to injury ○ group of B cells and antibodies
● stimulates the release or activation of
● Plasma cells- produce antibodies
chemical mediators ● Cell-mediated immunity
● Local inflammation- confined to a specific ○ the actions of a T cells
area of the body. ● Cytotoxic T cells- produce the effects of
● Systemic inflammatory- generally cell-mediated immunity
distributed throughout the body ● Helper T cells- promote or inhibit the
● Pyrogens chemicals- fever production activities of both antibody-mediated
immunity and cell-mediated immunity
● Stem cells
○ Red bone marrow
○ Give rise to all blood cells
○ Give rise to some pre T and B cells
DAPTIVE IMMUNITY
A
● Slower
● Uses lymphocytes
● Antigens- substances that stimulate
adaptive immune responses
● Antibody- proteins the body produces in
response to antigens
● Foreign Antigens
○ introduced from outside the body.
○ bacteria and viruses, and chemicals
released by microorganisms rigin and Development of Lymphocytes
O
○ Allergic reaction ● Antigen Recognition
● Self-antigens ○ Lymphocytes have cell membrane
○ molecules the body produces to proteins, called antigen receptors,
stimulate an immune system on their surfaces.
response. ○ B-cell receptors- antigen receptors
on B cells
Anatomy and Physiology
T-cell receptors - T cells
○ ■ an attach the antibody to
c
● Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) cells,
molecules ○ Gamma Globulins
○ glycoproteins that have binding sites ■ Antibodies
for antigens. ■ found mostly in the gamma
○ function as “serving trays” that hold globulin part of plasma.
and present a processed antigen on ○ Immunoglobulins (Ig)
the outer surface of the cell ■ globulin proteins involved in
membrane immunity
costimulation by a second signal is also
● ○ IgG
required. ■ Activates complement and
● Costimulation can be achieved by cytokines increases phagocytosis
■ responsible for Rh reactions
■ Can cross placenta
■ Protect fetus
○ IgM
■ Activates complement and
acts as an antigen binding
receptor on the surface of B
cell
■ transfusion ABO blood
system
■ first antibody produced in
response to an antigen
○ IgA
■ Secreted into saliva, into
tears, and onto mucous
membranes to protect body
surfaces
■ found in colostrum and milk
to provide immune protection
to the newborn
○ IgE
■ Binds to mast cells and
basophils
■ stimulates the inflammatory
response
○ IgD
■ antigen-binding receptor on
B cells
● Plasma cells
○ produce antibodies
○ 3-14 days
Primary response
●
○ 1st exposure of B cell to antigen
○ B cell undergoes division and forms
plasma cell and memory cells
ntibody-Mediated Immunity
A
● Secondary response
● effective against extracellular antigens, such
○ Memory cells
as bacteria, viruses (when they are outside
■ occurs when the immune
cells), and toxins.
system is exposed to an
certain allergic reactions.
●
antigen
● Structure of Antibodies
○ Memory B cells
○ Variable region
■ responsible for the
■ end of each “arm” of the
secondary response/memory
antibody
response,
■ combines with the antigen.
○ Constant region
■ rest of the antibody
Anatomy and Physiology
ell-Mediated Immunity
C
● Cell-mediated immunity is essential for
fighting viral infections.
● function of cytotoxic T cells and is most
effective against microorganisms that live
inside body cells.
● some allergic reactions, the control of
tumors, and graft rejection
● Helper T cells
○ Activates macrophages
○ Help form B cells
○ Promote production of Tc
● Cytotoxic T cells (Tc)
○ Precursor to cytotoxic T lymphocytes
● Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL)
○ Destroys antigen on contact
● Regulatory T cells (Tr)
○ Turn off immune response when
antigen is gone
Acquired Immunity
● Active immunity results when an individual
is exposed to an antigen (either naturally or
Anatomy and Physiology
rtificially) and the response of the
a EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE LYMPHATIC
individual’s SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
● Active Natural Immunity ● Aging has little effect on the lymphatic
○ natural exposure to an antigen, such system’s ability to remove fluid from tissues,
as a disease-causing microorganism absorb lipids from the digestive tract, or
● Active artificial immunity remove defective red blood cells from the
○ Antigen is deliberately introduced blood.
into an individual to stimulate the ● Decreased helper T-cell proliferation results
immune system. in decreased antibody mediated and
○ Vaccination cell-mediated immune responses.
● Passive natural immunity ● The primary and secondary antibody
○ antibodies are transferred from a responses decrease with age.
mother to her child across the ● The ability to resist intracellular pathogens
placenta before birth. decreases with age.
● Passive artificial immunity
○ collecting of antibodies from one
source and introducing them to an
infected individual
○ Injection of antibodies
○ antiserum
OVERVIEW OF IMMUNE INTERACTIONS
IMMUNOTHERAPY
● treats disease by altering immune system
function or by directly attacking harmful
cells.
You might also like
- Teach Me AnatomyDocument17 pagesTeach Me AnatomyMar Kristian Vero Lumen100% (1)
- Muscle Injuries in Sport Athletes Clinical Essentials and Imaging Findings 2017Document567 pagesMuscle Injuries in Sport Athletes Clinical Essentials and Imaging Findings 2017Paulo Araujo100% (2)
- Chapter 7: Muscular System: SarcomeresDocument11 pagesChapter 7: Muscular System: SarcomeresPrecious Faith RodriguezNo ratings yet
- CHAPTER 7 Muscular System ReviewerDocument5 pagesCHAPTER 7 Muscular System ReviewerPhilline ReyesNo ratings yet
- Muscular SystemDocument8 pagesMuscular SystemChristine Joanne CelendroNo ratings yet
- Chapter 7 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGYDocument10 pagesChapter 7 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGYAngela Mae MeriñoNo ratings yet
- Muscular System - Part 1 (BSN - 1F)Document5 pagesMuscular System - Part 1 (BSN - 1F)yulo.jhoselleanne.bsnNo ratings yet
- The Muscular SystemDocument4 pagesThe Muscular SystemMazon, Dinah Melisse P.No ratings yet
- Muscular System Lecture 1DDocument7 pagesMuscular System Lecture 1DShane PascualNo ratings yet
- Muscular System - Part 1 (BSN - 1F)Document5 pagesMuscular System - Part 1 (BSN - 1F)yulo.jhoselleanne.bsnNo ratings yet
- The Muscular System NotesDocument12 pagesThe Muscular System NotesHannah Grace CorveraNo ratings yet
- 11J - Caybot - Jash Jovian - Task10Document11 pages11J - Caybot - Jash Jovian - Task10JASH JOVIAN CAYBOTNo ratings yet
- AnaPhy Lesson 6 Muscular SYstemDocument7 pagesAnaPhy Lesson 6 Muscular SYstemLM KishimotoNo ratings yet
- Lesson 5 Muscular SystemDocument8 pagesLesson 5 Muscular SystemRodrigo SeriozaNo ratings yet
- ANAPHYSIO LEC (Midterms)Document14 pagesANAPHYSIO LEC (Midterms)KIM EUNHANo ratings yet
- Anaphy Reviewer Muscular SystemDocument4 pagesAnaphy Reviewer Muscular SystemJoyce Kathreen Ebio LopezNo ratings yet
- The Muscular System Anaphy LabDocument12 pagesThe Muscular System Anaphy LabHannah Grace CorveraNo ratings yet
- Muscular System EducDocument9 pagesMuscular System EducRam AugustNo ratings yet
- Muscular System ReviewerDocument21 pagesMuscular System ReviewerChloe Mikaela MonsantoNo ratings yet
- Muscular SystemDocument10 pagesMuscular SystemKYLA LORENZ BALUMANo ratings yet
- Muscle Tissue NotesDocument4 pagesMuscle Tissue NotesTob MoradosNo ratings yet
- Muscular System ReviewerDocument3 pagesMuscular System ReviewerRea BrangueloNo ratings yet
- Muscular SystemDocument20 pagesMuscular Systempriya garciaNo ratings yet
- Luminang Muscular System RADocument13 pagesLuminang Muscular System RAJohn Chris LuminangNo ratings yet
- Chapter 7 - Muscuar SystemDocument17 pagesChapter 7 - Muscuar SystemM GarciaNo ratings yet
- Animal and Plant TissuesDocument5 pagesAnimal and Plant TissuesShajara Anglacer AnacanNo ratings yet
- Anatomy Midterms RevDocument26 pagesAnatomy Midterms RevErnest VincentNo ratings yet
- Muscular and Nervous SystemDocument13 pagesMuscular and Nervous SystemDionne EllaNo ratings yet
- Muscular SystemDocument6 pagesMuscular SystemTricia Mae LlerenaNo ratings yet
- 397 - Musculoskeletal Physiology) Smooth MuscleDocument5 pages397 - Musculoskeletal Physiology) Smooth Musclevkpremiyahoo.comNo ratings yet
- Histo 1.9 Muscle TissueDocument7 pagesHisto 1.9 Muscle TissueMonesa Christy VillanuevaNo ratings yet
- Histology of Muscle: Lecturer Anatomy DepartmentDocument19 pagesHistology of Muscle: Lecturer Anatomy DepartmentSUMAN GHOSHNo ratings yet
- Midterm - Muscular SystemDocument5 pagesMidterm - Muscular Systemino zuii javierNo ratings yet
- Muscular SystemDocument13 pagesMuscular SystemavilajrjimuelNo ratings yet
- CHAPTER 7 ANAPHY TransesDocument17 pagesCHAPTER 7 ANAPHY TransesHoly HaeinNo ratings yet
- Muscular System: Muscle TypesDocument33 pagesMuscular System: Muscle TypesAalliyah YadaoNo ratings yet
- Week 9 - Skeletal Muscle HistologyDocument26 pagesWeek 9 - Skeletal Muscle Histologysandro giguashviliNo ratings yet
- The Muscular SystemDocument9 pagesThe Muscular SystemKeiffer Ann LopezNo ratings yet
- Chapter 7 Muscular SystemDocument13 pagesChapter 7 Muscular SystemVanya YeleniaNo ratings yet
- Types of MusclesDocument8 pagesTypes of MusclesJoan Vito CruzNo ratings yet
- Muscular System 2nd SemDocument6 pagesMuscular System 2nd SemJOANNA MARIE INVENTORNo ratings yet
- 7 Muscular SystemDocument11 pages7 Muscular SystemmargaretNo ratings yet
- Anaphy Notes MidtermDocument10 pagesAnaphy Notes MidtermAndrea SaldivarNo ratings yet
- Muscular Tissue: Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Industri Farmasi BogorDocument12 pagesMuscular Tissue: Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Industri Farmasi Bogorrizal bohalNo ratings yet
- Muscular SystemDocument17 pagesMuscular SystemNicoleVideñaNo ratings yet
- Activity 9 Group 3 Muscle Physiology - OdtDocument9 pagesActivity 9 Group 3 Muscle Physiology - OdtAMEER MUHMIEN JALMAANI. LERIOSNo ratings yet
- Jonahenry Muscular-SystemDocument2 pagesJonahenry Muscular-SystemSachdev KingNo ratings yet
- 2.2. Muscle Physiology - Muscle Structure 2023Document27 pages2.2. Muscle Physiology - Muscle Structure 20236f5d6b5r6tNo ratings yet
- Muscular SystemDocument9 pagesMuscular SystemReynaldo MontañoNo ratings yet
- 6.0 Muscular SystemDocument76 pages6.0 Muscular System[R2A] Khadijah AzlanNo ratings yet
- Topic 5 Genhisto NotesDocument6 pagesTopic 5 Genhisto NotesShiina MashiroNo ratings yet
- Muscular SystemDocument7 pagesMuscular SystemHenry BuñagNo ratings yet
- Lab Muscle Tissue EditinggDocument12 pagesLab Muscle Tissue EditinggLyn YmiNo ratings yet
- The Muscle Tissue ReviewerDocument5 pagesThe Muscle Tissue ReviewerSasukeNo ratings yet
- Muscular SystemDocument3 pagesMuscular Systemmartinezkylene1124No ratings yet
- Physiology of Skeletal MuscleDocument24 pagesPhysiology of Skeletal MuscleAireno reiNo ratings yet
- Structural OrganizationDocument119 pagesStructural OrganizationAVS CONo ratings yet
- Muscular SystemDocument10 pagesMuscular Systematerbat07No ratings yet
- Written Work 1 (SW 3.1) : Animal Structure: 3. MascularDocument1 pageWritten Work 1 (SW 3.1) : Animal Structure: 3. MascularHannah Lynn EllisNo ratings yet
- Muscular ReviewerDocument14 pagesMuscular Reviewerjewel torresNo ratings yet
- Anatomy of The: Finals Part 3 Musculoskeletal DisordersDocument10 pagesAnatomy of The: Finals Part 3 Musculoskeletal DisordersMonica JubaneNo ratings yet
- Guide Questions Answers: Muscles Contract, They Contribute To Gross and FineDocument7 pagesGuide Questions Answers: Muscles Contract, They Contribute To Gross and FinePrancheska Abigayle Peneyra SantiagoNo ratings yet
- Roberts, Haun Et Al. 2020 - Sarcoplasmic Hypertrophy in Skeletal MuscleDocument16 pagesRoberts, Haun Et Al. 2020 - Sarcoplasmic Hypertrophy in Skeletal MuscleGisbertNo ratings yet
- Pathology of Skeletal SystemDocument65 pagesPathology of Skeletal SystemFirda S SalsabilaNo ratings yet
- Sports Adaptology: V. N. SeluyanovDocument9 pagesSports Adaptology: V. N. Seluyanovdan_partelly4103No ratings yet
- The Mechanisms of Muscle Hypertrophy and Their.40Document16 pagesThe Mechanisms of Muscle Hypertrophy and Their.40Sebastián EscuderoNo ratings yet
- The Complete Running and Marathon BookDocument194 pagesThe Complete Running and Marathon Bookmuuan1914100% (6)
- Muscular System Study Guide 2015 AnswersDocument16 pagesMuscular System Study Guide 2015 AnswersLinet HuchuNo ratings yet
- 11 Biology Notes ch20 Locomotion and Movement PDFDocument3 pages11 Biology Notes ch20 Locomotion and Movement PDFRamachandranPerumalNo ratings yet
- Lecture Notes On The Muscular SystemDocument46 pagesLecture Notes On The Muscular SystemDennis Nabor Muñoz, RN,RM100% (1)
- Frogs Revised Muscular SystemDocument73 pagesFrogs Revised Muscular SystemPaolo Naguit100% (1)
- Ebook Guyton Hall Physiology Review Guyton Physiology PDF Full Chapter PDFDocument67 pagesEbook Guyton Hall Physiology Review Guyton Physiology PDF Full Chapter PDFrichard.tamayo139100% (25)
- 017 Muscle PhysiologyDocument62 pages017 Muscle Physiologyapi-23664998867% (3)
- Unit 5: Unit 5: Respiration, Internal Environment, Coordination and Gene TechnologyDocument138 pagesUnit 5: Unit 5: Respiration, Internal Environment, Coordination and Gene TechnologyMovie FlexNo ratings yet
- ST. Organization in Animal Part 1Document18 pagesST. Organization in Animal Part 1varshavishuNo ratings yet
- The Heart AnatomyDocument21 pagesThe Heart AnatomyLidia Dwi PutriNo ratings yet
- Xii Neet Locomotion LDocument9 pagesXii Neet Locomotion LShagufta100% (1)
- General Physiology, Nerve Muscle - MCQDocument9 pagesGeneral Physiology, Nerve Muscle - MCQadhamNo ratings yet
- Physiology Lecture 9 Q-Bank (Smooth Muscle Structure, Contraction, and Relationships)Document5 pagesPhysiology Lecture 9 Q-Bank (Smooth Muscle Structure, Contraction, and Relationships)ChrisOrtNo ratings yet
- STPM BIOLOGY Nervous SystemDocument21 pagesSTPM BIOLOGY Nervous Systemwkwhui83% (6)
- Anaphy Muscular SystemDocument54 pagesAnaphy Muscular SystemZosia SageNo ratings yet
- Histology SummaryDocument24 pagesHistology SummaryaelsehamyNo ratings yet
- Anatomy, Physiology, & Disease: Deborah Roiger Nia BullockDocument97 pagesAnatomy, Physiology, & Disease: Deborah Roiger Nia BullockAngelica Quidayan PadolinaNo ratings yet
- Muscles and Muscle Tissue: Functional Anatomy, Excitation-Contraction CouplingDocument46 pagesMuscles and Muscle Tissue: Functional Anatomy, Excitation-Contraction CouplingRevanth VejjuNo ratings yet
- Official Bank-MusclesDocument27 pagesOfficial Bank-MusclesEbtihal AlharthiNo ratings yet
- MUSCULOSKELETALDocument130 pagesMUSCULOSKELETALWenzy Razzie cruzNo ratings yet
- Wednesday 20 January 2021: BiologyDocument40 pagesWednesday 20 January 2021: BiologyMilka RahmanNo ratings yet
- Materi Jaringan Otot Dan Jaringan SarafDocument58 pagesMateri Jaringan Otot Dan Jaringan SarafMitha ArthameviaNo ratings yet
- HL IB BiologyDocument3 pagesHL IB Biologycoolcat132100% (2)
