NSG 100

Anatomy and Physiology in Nursing

Learning Outcome:
 Functions of muscular system
 Properties of muscle.
 Microscopic structure of a muscle.
 Resting membrane potential and action
potential.
 Neuromuscular junction
 Events during muscular contraction and
relaxation.
 Muscle twitch, tetanus, recruitment
and summation
 Fast twitch and slow twitch fibers.
 Aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
 Major types of fatigue.
 Isometric and isotonic contractions and
muscle tone.
 Distinguish among skeletal, smooth and
cardiac muscle.
 Origin, insertion, agonist, antaonist,
synergist and prime mover.
 Different muscles of the body.GY
 Effects of aging on skeletal muscle

Types of Muscles
 Skeletal
 attached to bones
 striated
 voluntarily controlled
 Cardiac
 located in the heart
 striated The Muscular System
 involuntarily controlled
 Smooth
 Located in blood vessels, hollow
Functions
organs
 Movement
 Non-striated
 Maintain posture
 involuntarily controlled
 Respiration
 Production of body heat
 Communication
 Heart beat
 Contraction of organs and vessels
 Whole Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
 Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, with
its associated connective tissue,
constitutes approximately 40% of body
weight.
 Skeletal muscle is so named because
many of the muscles are attached to
the skeletal system.
 Some skeletal muscles attach to the
skin or connective tissue sheets
 Skeletal muscle is also called striated
muscle because transverse bands, or
striations, can be seen in the muscle
under the microscope.
 Individual skeletal muscles, such as the
biceps brachii, are complete organs, as
a result of being comprised of several
tissues: muscle, nerve, and connective
tissue.

Functional Properties of Muscles

 Contractility - the ability of muscle to
shorten forcefully, or contract
 Excitability - the capacity of muscle to
respond to a stimulus
 Extensibility - the ability to be
stretched beyond its normal resting
length and still be able to contract
 Elasticity - the ability of the muscle to
recoil to its original resting length after
it has been stretched
Connective Tissue Coverings  The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber is called
 Each skeletal muscle is surrounded by a the sarcoplasm, which contains many
connective tissue sheath called the bundles of protein filaments.
epimysium.
 A skeletal muscle is subdivided into Structure of Skeletal Muscle
groups of muscle cells, termed fascicles.
 Each fascicle is surrounded by a
connective tissue covering, termed the
perimysium.
 Each skeletal muscle cell (fiber) is
surrounded by a connective tissue
covering, termed the endomysium.

Skeletal Muscle Fiber Anatomy

 A muscle fiber is a large cell, with
several hundred nuclei located at its
periphery.
 Muscle fibers range in length 1 mm to
30 cm.
 Alternating light and dark bands give
muscle fibers a striated appearance.
 The number of muscle fibers remains
constant after birth so enlargement of
muscles results from an increase in the
size of muscle fibers, not an increase in
fiber number.

Electrical Component Structures

 The sarcolemma (cell membrane) has
many tubelike inward folds, called
transverse tubules, or T tubules.
 T tubules occur at regular intervals
along the muscle fiber and extend into
the center of the muscle fiber.
 The T tubules are associated with
enlarged portions of the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum called the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
 The enlarged portions are called
terminal cisternae. Mechanical Component Structures
 Two terminal cisternae and their  Bundles of protein filaments are called
associated T tubule form a muscle myofibrils.
triad.  Myofibrils consist of two types of
 The sarcoplasmic reticulum has a myofilaments, actin (thin filaments)
relatively high concentration of Ca2+, and myosin (thick filaments).
which plays a major role in muscle  Actin and myosin are arranged into
contraction. repeating units called sarcomeres.
  The myofilaments in the sarcomere  Myosin myofilaments, or thick
provide for the mechanical aspect of myofilaments, resemble bundles of tiny
muscle contraction. golf clubs.
 Myosin heads have ATP binding sites,
The Sarcomere ATPase and attachment spots for actin.
 The sarcomere is the basic structural
and functional unit of skeletal muscle. Skeletal Muscle Fiber
 Sarcomeres join end to end to create
myofibrils.
 Z disks are network of protein fibers
that serve as an anchor for actin
myofilaments and separate one
sarcomere from the next.
 A sarcomere extends from one Z disk to
the next Z disk.
 The organization of actin and myosin
myofilaments gives skeletal muscle its
striated appearance and gives it the
ability to contract.
 The myofilaments slide past each other,
causing the sarcomeres to shorten.
 Each sarcomere consists of two light-
staining bands separated by a dark-
staining band.
 Light bands, consist only of actin, and
are called I bands. They extend from
the Z disc, toward the center of the
sarcomere, to the ends of the myosin
myofilaments.
 Dark staining bands are called A bands.
They extend the length of the myosin
myofilaments.
 Actin and myosin myofilaments overlap
for some distance on both ends of the A
band; this overlap causes the
contraction.

Myofilament Structure
 Actin myofilaments are made up of
three components: actin, troponin, and
tropomyosin.
 Troponin molecules have binding sites
for Ca2+ and tropomyosin filaments
block the myosin myofilament binding
sites on the actin myofilaments.
Neuromuscular Junction Structure
 A motor neuron is a nerve cell that
stimulates muscle cells.
 A neuromuscular junction is a synapse
where a neuron connects with a muscle
fiber.
 A synapse refers to the cell-to-cell
junction between a nerve cell and
either another nerve cell or an effector
cell, such as in a muscle or a gland.
 motor unit is a group of muscle fibers
that a single motor neuron stimulates.
 A presynaptic terminal is the end of a
neuron cell axon fiber.
 A synaptic cleft is the space between
the presynaptic terminal and
postsynaptic membrane.
 The postsynaptic membrane is the
muscle fiber membrane (sarcolemma).
 A synaptic vesicle is a vesicle in the
presynaptic terminal that stores and
releases neurotransmitter chemicals.
 Neurotransmitters are chemicals that
stimulate or inhibit postsynaptic cells.
 Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter
that stimulates skeletal muscles.
Neuromuscular Junction Structure
Sliding Filament Model
 When a muscle contracts, the actin and
myosin myofilaments in the sarcomere
slide past one another and shorten the
sarcomere.
 When sarcomeres shorten, myofibrils,
muscle fibers, muscle fascicles, and
muscles all shorten to produce muscle
contraction.
 During muscle relaxation, sarcomeres
lengthen.
Excitability of Muscle Fibers
 Muscle fibers are electrically excitable.
 Electrically excitable cells are polarized.
 The inside of the cell membrane is
negatively charged compared with the
outside.
 A voltage difference, or electrical
charge difference, exists across each
cell membrane.
 The charge difference is due to
differences in concentrations of ions on
either side of the membrane of an
unstimulated cell is called resting
membrane potential
Ion Channels
 The phospholipid bilayer is
impermeable to ions.
 Two types of membrane proteins,
called ion channels, permit ions to pass
through the membrane.
 Leak channels allow the slow leak of
ions down their concentration gradient.
 Gated channels may open or close in
response to various types of stimuli.
Resting Membrane Potential
 The electrical charge difference across
the cell membrane of an unstimulated
cell is called the resting membrane
potential.
 Muscle cells (fibers) have a resting
membrane potential but can also
perform action potentials.
  The resting membrane potential is due
to the inside of the membrane being
negatively charged in comparison to the
outside of the membrane which is
positively charged.
 Action potentials are due to the
membrane having gated channels.
The resting membrane potential exists
because of:
 The concentration of K+ being higher on
the inside of the cell membrane and the
concentration of Na+ being higher on
the outside. The presence of many
negatively charged molecules, such as
proteins, inside the cell that are too
large to exit the cell
 The presence of leak protein channels
in the membrane that are more
permeable to K+ than it is to Na+. Na+
tends to diffuse into the cell and K+
tends to diffuse out.
 In order to maintain the resting
membrane potential, the sodium-
potassium pump recreates the Na+ and
K+ ion gradient by pumping Na+ out of
the cell and K+ into the cell.
Resting Membrane Potential
Action Potentials
 An action potential reverses the resting
membrane potential so that the inside
of the cell becomes positive and the
outside negative.
 Occurs because gated ion channels
open when the cell is stimulated.
 The diffusion of ions through these
channels changes the charge across the
cell membrane and produces an action
potential.
 Action potential lasts for 1 to 3
milliseconds.
 The entry of Na+ causes the inside of
the cell membrane to become more
positive than when the cell is at resting
membrane potential.
 This increase in positive charge inside
the cell membrane is called
depolarization.
 If the depolarization changes the
membrane potential to a value called
threshold, an action potential is
triggered.
 An action potential is a rapid change in
charge across the cell membrane.
 The action potential travels across the
sarcolemma.
 Near the end of depolarization, the
positive charge causes gated Na+
channels to close and gated K+ channels
to open.
 Opening of gated K+ channels start
repolarization of the cell membrane.
 Repolarization is due to the exit of K+
from the cell.
 The outward diffusion of K+ returns the
cell to its resting membrane conditions
and the action potential ends.
 In a muscle fiber, an action potential
results in muscle contraction.
Resting Membrane Potential

Repolarization
 Na+ channels close change back to
resting potential
 Repolarization. Na+ channels are
closed, and Na+ movement into the
cells stops. More K+ channels open. K+
movement out of the cell increases,
making the inside of the cell membrane
Depolarization negatively charged compared to the
 change in charges inside becomes more outside, once again.
+ and outside more – Na+ channels open
 Depolarization. Na+ channels are open.
Na+ diffuses down its concentration
gradient through the open Na+
channels, making the inside of the cell
membrane positively charged
compared to the outside.
 Muscle Contraction
Function of the Neuromuscular
Junction
 Each muscle fiber is innervated by a
branch of a motor neuron at a
neuromuscular junction.
 Contact between the axon terminal and
the sarcolemma results in an action
potential in the muscle fiber which, in
turn, stimulates the fiber to contract.
 The action potential is stimulated by the
release of acetylcholine from the motor
neuron.
 Watch video on Function of the Neuromuscular
junction p.186
1. An action potential travels down the
motor neuron to the presynaptic
terminal.
2. The action potential causes Ca2+
channels to open and Ca2+ to enter the
terminal.
3. Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to release
acetylcholine into synaptic cleft.
4. Acetylcholine opens Na+ channels in the
sarcolemma and causes an action
potential.
5. The action potential moves down T
tubules.
6. Action potentials open gated Ca2+
channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum
which releases stored calcium.
7. Action potentials open gated Ca2+
channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum
which releases stored calcium.
 8. Ca2+ binds to troponin which is attached Skeletal Muscle Excitation
to actin causing tropomyosin to move
exposing attachment sites for myosin.
Myosin heads bind to actin. Muscles
contract when cross bridges move.
9. The heads of the myosin myofilaments
bend, causing the actin to slide past the
myosin. As long as Ca2+ is present, the
cycle repeats.

Skeletal Muscle Excitation

Skeletal Muscle Excitation 2

Cross Bridge Movement

 The mechanical component of muscle
contraction is called cross-bridge
cycling.
 The energy from one ATP molecule is
required for one cross bridge cycle.
 The movement of the myosin heads is
called power strokes.

ATP and Muscle Contractions

 Energy for muscle contractions is
supplied by ATP.
 Energy is released as ATP → ADP + Pi
and energy from ATP is stored in
myosin heads.
 A new ATP must bind to myosin before
cross-bridge is released.
 Rigor mortis will occur when a person
dies and no ATP is available to release
cross-bridges.
ATP Breakdown and Cross-Bridge
Movement
Muscle Relaxation
 Muscle relaxation occurs when
acetylcholine is no longer released at
the neuromuscular junction.
 Action potentials to the sarcoplasmic
reticulum stop.
 Ca2+ is actively transported back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum using energy
supplied by ATP.
 Ca2+ diffuses away from the troponin
molecules and tropomyosin again
blocks the attachment sites on the actin
molecules.
 The cross-bridge cycle stops and the
muscle relaxes.
Muscle Twitch
 A muscle twitch is a single contraction
of a muscle fiber in response to a
stimulus.
 A muscle twitch has three phases:
latent phase, contraction phase, and
relaxation phase.
 The latent phase is the time between
the application of a stimulus and the
beginning of contraction.
 The contraction phase is the time
during which the muscle contracts and
the relaxation phase is the time during
which the muscle relaxes.
Types of Contractions
 There are two types of muscle
contractions: isometric and isotonic.
 The isometric contraction has an
increase in muscle tension, but no
change in length.
 The isotonic contraction increases the
tension in a muscle and decreases the
length.
Summation and Recruitment
 The change of muscle contraction
strength depends on two factors:
 The amount of force in an individual
muscle fiber, called summation
 The amount of force in a whole muscle,
called recruitment.
Motor Unit
 A motor unit consists of a single motor
neuron and all the muscle fibers it
innervates.
 An action potential in the neuron of a
motor unit causes contraction of all the
muscle fibers in that unit.
 Small, delicate muscles have very few
fibers per motor unit.
 Large, powerful, less precise muscles
have fewer, larger motor units.
Force of Contraction in Individual
Muscle Fibers
 Individual muscle fibers can generate
different amounts of force.
 The amount of force generated
depends upon the number of cross-
bridges formed.
 More cross-bridges creates more force.
  One factor that influences the number
of cross-bridges formed is the
frequency of stimulation.
 A low frequency of stimuli allows a
muscle fiber to undergo twitches that
contract then fully relax.
 If the frequency of stimuli increases, the
muscle fiber is unable to relax
completely between twitches, more
cross bridges form and summation
occurs. The tension generated by the
muscle increases.
Summation and Recruitment
 Incomplete Tetanus occurs when the
frequency of stimulation only allows for
partial relaxation of the muscle fiber.
 Tetanus is a sustained contraction that
occurs when the frequency of
stimulation is so rapid that no
relaxation occurs.
 Recruitment is the stimulation of
several motor units.
Muscle Tone
 Muscle tone is the constant tension
produced by body muscles over long
periods of time.
 Muscle tone is responsible for keeping
the back and legs straight, the head in
an upright position, and the abdomen
from bulging.
 Muscle tone depends on a small
percentage of all the motor units in a
muscle being stimulated at any point in
time, causing their muscle fibers to
contract tetanically and out of phase
with one another.
opposing resistance causes the muscle
to lengthen.
Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types
 Slow twitch fibers
 contract slowly
 fatigue slowly
 have a considerable amount of
myoglobin
 use aerobic respiration
 are dark in color
 used by long distance runners
 Fast twitch fibers
 contract quickly
 fatigue quickly
 use anaerobic respiration
 energy from glycogen
 light color
 used by sprinters
 Most human muscles have a blend of
fast twitch and slow twitch fibers. The
amount of each type varies for each
muscle.
 The large postural muscles of the back
and lower limbs contain more slow-
twitch fibers.
 The muscles of the upper limbs contain
more fast-twitch muscle fibers.
Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types

Types of Isotonic Contractions

 Concentric contractions are isotonic
contractions in which muscle tension
increases as the muscle shortens.
 Eccentric contractions are isotonic
contractions in which tension is
maintained in a muscle, but the
Energy for Muscle Contractions
 Muscle fibers have three ATP
dependent proteins
 The myosin head
 The Na+/K+ ATPase to maintain
resting membrane potential
 The Ca2+ pump in the
sarcoplasmic reticulum
 Muscle fibers store enough ATP to
contract for about 5–6 seconds. If
contraction is to continue beyond this
time, more ATP must be produced.
 ATP is derived from four processes in
skeletal muscle.
 Conversion of two ADP to one ATP and
one adenosine monophosphate (AMP)
by the enzyme adenylate kinase
 Transfer of a phosphate from a
molecule called creatine (krē′a-tēn)
phosphate by the enzyme creatine
kinase from ADP to form ATP
 Anaerobic production of ATP during
intensive short-term exercise
 Aerobic production of ATP during most
exercise and normal conditions
ATP Production as Exercise
Progresses
 Muscle fibers store enough ATP for
about 5 to 6 seconds of contraction.
 Next, ATP production by adenylate
kinase and creatine kinase occur. This is
depleted after about 15 seconds.
 When a muscle fiber is working too
strenuously for ATP stores and creatine
phosphate to be able to provide enough
ATP, anaerobic respiration
predominates.
 Fast-twitch muscle fibers are the
primary anaerobic muscle fibers.
 Slow-twitch fibers utilize aerobic
pathways.
 The lactate produced by anaerobic fast-
twitch fibers is used as a starting point
for aerobic ATP production in slow-
twitch fibers.
Muscle Fatigue
 Fatigue is a temporary state of reduced
work capacity.
 Without fatigue, muscle fibers would be
worked to the point of structural
damage to them and their supportive
tissues.
 Mechanisms of fatigue include:
 Acidosis and ATP depletion due
to either an increased ATP
consumption or a decreased
ATP production
 Oxidative stress, which is
characterized by the buildup of
excess reactive oxygen species
(ROS; free radicals)
 Local inflammatory reactions
Muscle Soreness
 Following vigorous exercise, people
sometimes experience muscle pain,
which can last for several days.
 The pain is related to the effects of
inflammatory chemicals on the muscle
fibers.
 Exercise schedules that alternate
exercise with periods of rest, such as
lifting weights every other day, provide
time for the repair of muscle tissue.
Oxygen Deficit
 There are two distinct phases of O2 use:
 Oxygen deficit is the lag time between
when a person begins to exercise and
when they begin to breathe more
heavily because of the exercise.
 Excess postexercise oxygen
consumption is the lag time before
breathing returns to its pre-exercise
rate once exercise stops.
Smooth Muscle
 Smooth muscle cells are non-striated
small, spindle-shaped muscle cells,
usually with one nucleus per cell.
  The myofilaments are not organized Muscle Attachment
into sarcomeres.
 The cells comprise organs controlled
involuntarily, except the heart.
 Neurotransmitter substances,
hormones, and other factors can
stimulate smooth muscle.

Cardiac Muscle
 Cardiac muscle cells are long, striated,
and branching, with usually only one
nucleus per cell.
 Cardiac muscle is striated as a result of
the sarcomere arrangement.
 Cardiac muscle contraction is
autorhythmic.
 Cardiac muscle cells are connected to
one another by specialized structures
that include desmosomes and gap
junctions called intercalated disks.
 Cardiac muscle cells function as a single
unit in that action potential in one
cardiac muscle cell can stimulate action
potentials in adjacent cells.
Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
 A tendon connects skeletal muscle to
bone.
 Aponeuroses are broad, sheetlike
tendons.
 A retinaculum is a band of connective
tissue that holds down the tendons at
each wrist and ankle.
 Skeletal muscle attachments have an
origin and an insertion, with the origin
being the attachment at the least
mobile location.
 The insertion is the end of the muscle
attached to the bone undergoing the
greatest movement.
 The part of the muscle between the
origin and the insertion is the belly.
 A group of muscles working together
are called agonists.
 A muscle or group of muscles that
oppose muscle actions are termed
antagonists.
Muscle Names
 Muscles are named according to:
1. Location – a pectoralis muscle
is located in the chest.
2. Size – the size could be large or
small, short or long.
3. Shape - the shape could be
triangular, quadrate,
rectangular, or round.
4. Orientation of fascicles –
fascicles could run straight
(rectus) or at an angle (oblique).
5. Origin and insertion. The
sternocleidomastoid has its
origin on the sternum and
clavicle and its insertion on the
mastoid process of the
temporal bone.
6. Number of heads. A biceps
muscle has two heads (origins),
and a triceps muscle has three
heads (origins).
7. Function. Abductors and
adductors are the muscles that
cause abduction and adduction
movements.
Muscles of Mastication

Tongue and Swallowing Muscles Deep Neck and Back Muscles

Thoracic Muscles

Abdominal Wall Muscles

 Rectus abdominis:
 center of abdomen
 compresses abdomen
 External abdominal oblique:
 sides of abdomen
 compresses abdomen
 Internal abdominal oblique:
 compresses abdomen
 Transverse abdominis:
 compresses abdomen
 Pelvic Diaphragm Muscles

Abdominal Wall Muscles

Pelvic Diaphragm Muscles

 Levator ani
 Ischiocavernosus
 Bulbospongiosus
 Deep transverse perineal
 Superficial transverse perineal

Upper Scapular and Limb Muscles

 Trapezius:
 shoulders and upper back
 extends neck and head
 Pectoralis major:
 Chest
 elevates ribs
Upper Scapular and Limb Muscles Upper Limb Muscles
 Serratus anterior:  Triceps brachii:
 between ribs  3 heads
 elevates ribs  extends elbow
 Deltoid:  Biceps brachii:
 Shoulder  “Flexing muscle”
 abductor or upper limbs  flexes elbow and shoulder
 Brachialis:
 flexes elbow
 Latissimus dorsi:
 lower back
 lower backextends shoulder

Arm Muscles
Forearm Muscles
 Muscles of Hips and Thighs

Muscles of Hips and Thighs

 Iliopsoas:
 flexes hip
 Gluteus maximus:
 Buttocks
 extends hip and abducts thigh
 Gluteus medius:
 Hip
 abducts and rotates thigh

Muscles of the Upper Leg

The quadriceps femoris is comprised of 4 thigh
muscles:
 The rectus femoris:
 front of thigh
 extends knee and flexes hip
 The vastus lateralis:
 extends knee
 The vastus medialis:
 extends knee
 The vastus intermedius:
 extends knee
Muscles of Lower Leg
 Tibialis anterior:
 front of lower leg
 inverts foot
 Gastrocnemius:
 calf
 flexes foot and leg
 Soleus:
 attaches to ankle
 flexes foot