Lecture 8

The Nervous System

Reference: Amerman Chapter 11 (12 and 13)

Dr. Garry Niedermayer

School of Science and Health
 Learning objectives

• Name the anatomical divisions of the CNS

• Describe the functional anatomy of the brain,

diencephalon, brainstem, cranial nerves,
cerebellum & spinal cord

Amerman chapter 12
 Learning objectives Continued..

• Describe the anatomy of spinal nerves and how

they combine to form plexuses & peripheral
nerves
• Classify different types of sensory afferents
based on receptor type and conduction velocity
• Classify & describe different types of reflexes and
their neural components
• Describe the functional anatomy of the 2 main
divisions of the autonomic nervous system
• Compare & contrast the somatic NS & ANS
Amerman chapters 12, 13
 The Nervous system

• CNS
– Brain
– Spinal cord
– Cranial nerves
• PNS
– Peripheral nerves
• Motor (efferent)
• Sensory (afferent)
The Nervous system
 Specialist terminology
• Afferent: afferent signals are those that approach the CNS. Afferent
fibers are axons that convey information to the CNS
• Efferent: efferent refers to signals that evade (i.e., leave) the CNS.
Efferent fibers are axons that convey information away from the CNS.
• Ganglion: a collection of cell bodies located in the PNS that have a
similar function
• Nucleus: a collection of cell bodies located in the CNS that have a
similar function
• Tract, funiculus, fasiculus, column: bundles of CNS axons in white
matter associated with ascending or descending pathways or connecting
brain cells
• Nerve: bundles of axons found only in the PNS (cranial or somatic)
• Motor unit: a lower motoneuron & its associated set of muscle fibres
• Lower motoneuron has its cell body in the ventral horn of the spinal cord
and an axon that innervates skeletal muscle.
• Upper motoneurons have their cell bodies in the forebrain/brainstem and
send their axons to activate lower motoneurons
 Specialist terminology
• Somatic: “of the body”, voluntary, part of the
“wall” of the body.
• Visceral: deep organs, guts, inner organs.
• Grey matter: neuronal cell bodies.
• White matter: neuronal cell axons.
 Brain is protected by the skull &
covered by membranes called
MENINGES

• Dura mater (outer), arachnoid mater (middle), pia mater (inner)

• Folds of DURA MATER help stabilize the position of the brain
• Dural folds produce venous sinuses to drain blood from brain
• Pia contains nerves & blood vessels to nourish cells
 The heavily folded surface of the brain
underneath the meninges is the cortex.
• The brain is folded
inwards producing 1
ridges of cortex
called GYRI
(singular GYRUS)
• The shallow grooves 2
between the gyri are
SULCI (singular 3
SULCUS)

Additionally there are 3 main fissures (deep

grooves) which separate brain regions
1. longitudinal, 2. lateral 3. transverse
Folding is vital
 Comparative anatomy
• Human

• Chimpanzee

• Bird

• Mouse
CNS has 4 main parts; each has
specific functions

(hemisphere,
forebrain,
neo/cortex)
Cerebrum is divided into 5 lobes;
4 are related to the skull bones

Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital

 Each lobe has a specific primary
function & processes information from
the contralateral side of the body
Frontal Parietal
- Movement - Somatosensory

Temporal Occipital
- Hearing & - Vision
memory
 Limbic lobe
• The 5th lobe is the
limbic lobe
• Its main functions
are emotions &
memory
Medial side
• Found mostly on the
medial side of each
hemisphere
• cannot be seen from
lateral (outside) side.
Lateral side
 Hemispheric specialisation
(anatomically similar but cognitively different)

Organisational vs creativity

Dominant vs non dominant

 The cerebral ventricles form a series of 4
linked chambers in the brain surrounding deep
structures

• Contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): provide buoyancy & protection to brain

• Makes brain 1/30th of its actual weight
•Transports nutrients, chemical messengers and waste products
• CSF freely exchanges with brain extracellular fluid
 CSF circulation
CSF
similar to blood plasma except:
very little protein
no red blood cells
very few white cells
glucose 50% of serum

Normally a clear fluid

Diagnostic indicator
Very little immune function

• CSF is made by the choroid plexuses of each ventricle

• Flows around brain & spinal cord & is reabsorbed into venous circulation
via arachnoid villi that pierce the dura
• Blockage produces hydrocephalus
 Basal ganglia: a collection of 5
nuclei involved in the initiation of
movements
Coronal Horizontal plane
The thalamus is the gateway to the cortex
from the rest of the nervous system

It lies either side of the third ventricle

It receives input from all areas of the nervous system
The hypothalamus lies anterior & inferior to the
thalamus.

This region controls

hunger, thirst, sexual
feelings, hormone and
temperature
regulation (basically, it
regulates body
homeostasis)

It controls ANS
function
Brain hemispheres are connected by a
bridge of axons called the corpus callosum
(frontal, parietal & occipital lobes)

• Damage produces “split brain” syndrome

• 2 sides can’t communicate with each other
• Demonstrates language localisation
 Cranial nerves Have input into specific
brainstem regions

I, II, VIII =Sensory

III, IV, VI, XI, XII = Motor
SMELL
V,VII, IX, X = Mixed

VISION

EYE MOVEMENT
FACIAL EXPRESSION
TASTE
EYE MOVEMENT

HEARING
& FACIAL SENSATION
BALANCE
EYE MOVEMENT

TASTE
GI CONTROL
SWALLOWING

TONGUE MOVEMENT NECK & SHOULDER MOVEMENT

 Spinal cord
• Encased in vertebral
column & meninges
• Buffered by CSF
• Extends as far as the L2
vertebra
• Gives rise to 31 pairs of
spinal nerves
• Different regions have
specific functions
Gross anatomy of the spinal cord

Sensory nerve afferents

enter spinal cord through
the dorsal root & synapse
in dorsal horn

Motor efferent axons

leave spinal cord via the
ventral root to re-enter the
spinal nerve to reach
muscles
 Spinal cord anatomy
Dorsal
Grey matter
– Resembles a butterfly
Ventral
– has distinct regions
1. Dorsal horn
– Neurons process afferent input from somatic & visceral
tissue
2. Lateral horn
– Only present at thoracic & sacral levels
– Autonomic NS visceral motor output
3. Ventral horn
– Motor output to skeletal tissue
 Functional organisation of the
spinal cord
1. Homeostasis Grey matter White matter
(cells & terminals) (axons)
• Specify stimulus modality
& location
• Integrating centre for
spinal reflexes
DF
DF
LF
LF
2. Relay Conduit for
impulse propagation to &
from the brain via VF
VF
ascending & descending
tracts
• Different tracts are DF = dorsal funiculus
located in different areas LF = lateral funiculus
of white matter VF = ventral funiculus
 Key ascending sensory pathways
Somatotpic organistion of tracts:
Important point:
Note that in DCML legs are medial to
Discriminative
tract name
armstells you in the STT it is the
whereas Touch
where it starts & round
other way
ends
DCML

Balance

Each tract is topographically Pain

organised & located in separate
area of white matter
 Main sensory tracts
Ascending Cross over Cortical Functions
Pathway / Tract point destination
(decussation)
1. DCML Brainstem Primary sensory Discriminative
(dorsal column, (medulla) cortex (SI) touch
medial lemniscus) (location) (vibration, pressure, light
Association cortex touch, weight)
Kinesthesia
(sensation that a body part
has moved)
2. Spinothalamic Spinal cord Primary sensory Pain & Temperature
cortex (SI) (location & emotional
(location) tag)
Limbic lobe
(emotion)
3. Spino- Does not Anterior lobe of Balance
cerebellar cross cerebellum (unconscious
proprioception)
 Motor systems & movement
• Motor (descending) • UMNs never innervate
pathways connect brain muscle
to muscles • Simplest form of
• Use a 2 neuron relay movement is a stretch
system reflex (only 2
1. Upper motoneurons neurons!)
(UMNs, cell body found
in cortex & brainstem)
control
2. Lower motoneurons
(LMNs cell body found
in brainstem & spinal
cord)
 Main Descending pathway:
corticospinal tract (pyramidal)
CST
Posture & Planning &
Pathway / Cross over point
Tract
(pain control)
(decussation) Navigation Initiation

1.
(voluntary spinomedullary
control of fine
Cortico- junction
movement)
spinal

Cell body Function

location
(head balance)
Frontal Voluntary
lobe control of
movement
PNS
 Components of PNS
In (detect stimuli)  integrate  Out (motor response)
 Spinal nerve gross anatomy
• Reminder: 31 pairs of spinal nerves
• Cervical =8, Thoracic =12, Lumbar =5, Sacral =5, Coccygeal =1
• Enter/exit via intervertebral foramen
• Formed by the union of dorsal & ventral roots
– (cranial nerves do NOT have dorsal/ventral roots)
• Afferent cell body located in DRG; Efferent cell body located
in spinal cord (lower motoneuron)
Spinal nerves divide into rami that
provide regional sensorimotor
innervation
: Axons innervating
the muscles, skin & joints of the
back

: Axons innervating
the limbs (plexus) & anterior
trunk regions (intercostal
nerves)

Contains autonomic fibres

(only present at thoracic levels)
 Spinal nerves can unite to form
plexuses of peripheral nerves
Arise from ventral rami

Cervical - neck
Brachial - arms
Lumbar - legs
Sacral - pelvis
 Some important PERIPHERAL nerves
of the body arise from the plexuses
• Cervical (C1-4)
– Phrenic (C3-5); breathing

• Upper limb (C5-T1)

– Radial, ulnar, median

• Lower limb (L2-S4)

– Sciatic
– Femoral
Upper limb - Brachial Plexus: 5
Important Nerves
 Lower limb – Lumbosacral
Plexus: 2 Important Nerves
1. Femoral nerve
– Quadricep muscles, anterior thigh skin &
medial lower leg skin
2. Sciatic nerve (Longest & thickest
nerve of body)
– Muscles & skin of posterior thigh,
lateral & anterior lower leg
compartments & all foot muscles
– Subdivided into 2 nerves: tibial &
common fibular
• Obturator & pelvic nerves
– adductor muscles, genital & rectal tissue
Summary distribution of peripheral
nerves of the different plexuses
 Dermatomes
Area of skin innervated by a
single spinal nerve is called a
dermatome.

Damage to a sensory nerve

produces changes in sensation
in the relevant dermatome.

Myotome = muscles innervated

by motoneurons of a single
spinal segment
 Nerves are surrounded by connective
tissue & contain numerous fascicles
that contain individual nerve fibres

• Epineurium = Outer covering of

nerve
• Perineurium covers individual
fascicles
• Endoneurium covers individual
axons
 What’s in a peripheral nerve
Axons
• Myelinated/unmyelinated
• Afferents
– Somatic, visceral
• Efferents
– Somatic, visceral

Somatic innervate
skeletal muscle & skin
Visceral = internal organs
 Somatic receptor function

Receptor Function

Free Pain
nerve detector
ending

Mechano- Function
receptor
Hair follicle detect hair
movement Proprioceptor Function
Sensual Muscle spindle Stretch detector
stroking Weight detector
Spatial
awareness/balance
 Classification: axon physiology
• Axon diameter  conduction velocity
• Classified as types I-IV or A,,,, B, C
• Fastest fibres are thickly myelinated (both motor
& sensory) mediate postural reflexes (Group 1 or
A)
– Fibres with non specialised endings responding to high
threshold stimuli = Group 3 or A
• Unmyelinated fibres = Group 4 or C-fibres =
Slowest fibres
 Class/ Myelin Diameter CV (m/s) Function/Type of sensation
(group) (m)
Afferents
A (I) Yes 12-20 >72 Joint receptors
Ia VERY Muscle spindle All are proprioceptors
Ib FAST Golgi tendon organ
 

A (II) Yes 6-12 30-72 Low threshold skin mechanoreceptors

  FAST (Pacini corpuscles, Ruffini endings, Merkel
cells, Meissner corpuscles, hair follicles)
A (III) Yes, 1-6 5-29 Mechanical pain
  thin FASTISH Muscle flexor reflex afferents
Autonomic afferents
C (IV) No <1 0.5-2 Temperature, muscle & visceral pain
SLOW
Efferents
A Yes 12-20 >72 Motor to skeletal (extrafusal) muscle fibres
A 5-8 30-48 Motor to muscle spindle (intrafusal) fibres
B Yes, <3 3-30 Autonomic preganglionic efferents
thin
C No <1 0.5-2 Autonomic postganglionic efferents
 Afferent Peripheral Receptive Fields
An area of skin innervated by a
single nerve fibre
• RF size depends on location
• is inversely proportional to
proximodistal position on body
• smallest on body regions used for
sensory discrimination, e.g. fingers
& lips; larger on axial body e.g.
abdomen & back
• RFs of individual afferents
overlap
• Allows for 2 point discrimination
From stimulation to perception
1. TRANSDUCTION
• Stimuli  electrical activity
at sensory nerve endings

2. TRANSMISSION
• conduction along nerves &
transfer to ascending
pathways

3. PERCEPTION
• Affective/motivation

4. BEHAVIOUR
• Response
The spinal cord participates
in reflex actions
• A reflex is the simplest form of movement
• Involuntary, automatic, stereotyped reaction
– No direct brain control but brain regulates size
• Difficult to supress
• Require stimulus
• Result in muscle contraction or glandular
secretion
• Employ reflex arcs (neural circuits)
• Classified in different ways
 Reflex classification
Development

Innate (genetic)
• Suckling
• Grasping Response Nature
• Flexion w’drawal
• Eye tracking Somatic Circuit complexity
• Skeletal muscle Location
Learned (practise) Monosynaptic
• e.g. driving Visceral (ANS) • tendon Spinal cord
• Smooth muscle
• glands Polysynaptic Segmental
• Flexor w’drawal • simple
• Crossed extensor Intersegmental
• Complex

Cranial
• Involve
brainstem &
brain nuclei
Anatomy of a somatic
reflex arc

“1 in 1 out”
 Stretch reflexes
• When muscles are stretched they “fight back” i.e.
contract & increase tone = stretch reflex
• Helps maintain posture & balance
• Generally involve several muscles (synergists &
antagonists)
• When stretch triggers contraction on 1 side of joint
it triggers a response on other side (antagonist)
– i.e. joint flexion triggers stretch reflex in extensors & in
turn this triggers a stretch reflex in the flexors
– Feedback control
– Useful to stabilise joints & smooth muscle action
 Muscle spindles & stretch reflexes
• Ia (muscle spindle)
= sensory afferent
• Encapsulated
• Wraps around intra-
fusal fibres
• Detects change in
muscle length (&
hence joint position)
= proprioceptor
• Also detects object
weight
 Muscle spindles & stretch reflexes
• Ia (spindle) has
OWN motoneuron
supply to intrafusal
fibre
• Single Ia afferent
synapses with an:
–  motoneuron
–  motoneuron
 How muscle stretch is detected

Time Time

Unstretched muscle Stretched muscle

Action potentials (APs) are generated Stretching activates the muscle
at a constant rate in sensory fiber. spindle rate of APs.
 Muscle spindle activates -
motoneurons to contract extrafusal
fibres
If only  motor neurons were
activated
• Only extrafusal muscle
fibers contract.
• Muscle spindle becomes
slack & NO APs are fired.
• It is UNABLE to signal
further length changes. i.e.
Time
USELESS!
TENDON REFLEXES: Knee-jerk reflex = classic STRETCH
reflex. Mediated by a direct synaptic connection in the spinal
cord between the sensory & motor neurons. NO interneurons
are involved = MONOSYNAPTIC. Note: stretching of
quadriceps muscle activates the SAME muscle to contract.

synapse

Body has 6
monosynaptic
reflexes
1. Biceps
2. Triceps
3. Supinator
4. Quadriceps
5. Achilles
6. Masster
The same tendon tap that activates the (extensor) reflex also
inhibits the antagonist flexor muscle via an inhibitory
interneuron. When the extensor contracts, the flexor relaxes.
This = RECIPROCAL INHIBITION
 Monosynaptic reflex
Summary connection to extensor
muscle (2 neurons only)

Disynaptic reflex
connection to flexor muscle
(>2 neurons, slightly
slower)
Other reflexes: Flexion Reflexes
Reflex withdrawal from a painful
stimulus is mediated by at least 1
and usually 2-3 EXCITATORY
interneurons between the nociceptor
afferent input and the (usually) flexor
motoneuron. This flexion reflex is
therefore known as a polysynaptic
reflex.

Because a flexion reflex

involves several
interneurons (which may be
excitatory or inhibitory) it
can be suppressed by the
brain.
We can overcome pain in
extreme circumstances
 Why have reflexes?
• Reflexes give information about
health of body
• Monosynaptic reflexes
– information about specific spinal cord
segment
– Brain controls magnitude of reflex
• Jendrassic manoeuvre

• PNS damage decreases reflex size

• CNS damage increases reflex size
– Babinski sign & hyper-reflexia
 What is the Autonomic Nervous
System & what does it do ?
• Visceral motor system
– parasympathetic & sympathetic divisions
• Not under conscious control from brain
• Regulated by hypothalamus & brainstem
• Homeostasis
– ANS modulates digestion, respiration, circulation,
secretions, body temperature, sexual function via reflexes
– Major targets = visceral organs of anterior cavities (incl.
blood vessels, hairs & sweat glands)
• Separate & different system from somatic NS
 What does the ANS do?
ANS functions in a nutshell
4F’s R&D
Comparison of autonomic & somatic
nervous systems
Sympathetic NS anatomy

• T1-L2 spinal cord contains cell bodies

of preganglionic motoneurons
• Their axons project to the
sympathetic (paravertebral) chain
ganglia adjacent to the vertebrae.
• Ganglia are connected by the
sympathetic trunk.
• Chain ganglia contain cell bodies of
postganglionic motoneurons
• project out to target organs, blood vessels
and skin.
Grey & white rami
• Allow SNS axons access
to different levels of the
body
• Differentiated on presence
or absence of myelin
– White ramus:
preganglionic axons (thinly
myelinated)
– Grey ramus:
postganglionic axons
(unmyelinated)
 Chain allows sympathetic pre-
ganglionic axons from adjacent spinal
segments to roam widely around NS
• Preganglionic neurons makes a
SINGLE synapse at 1 of 3 sites
1. Chain ganglion at same level

To blood vessels,
arrector pili muscles
& sweat glands
 Chain allows sympathetic pre-
ganglionic axons from adjacent spinal
segments to roam widely around NS
2. Chain ganglion at
different level
– Above/below

To blood vessels,
arrector pili
muscles & sweat
glands
 Chain allows sympathetic pre-
ganglionic axons from adjacent spinal
segments to roam widely around NS
3. Pass through chain
ganglia WITHOUT
synapsing to become
splanchnic nerves that
synapse in collateral
ganglia near to visceral
organs Sympathetic nerve

Collateral
To visceral organs ganglion
 Parasympathetic NS anatomy
Parasympathetic Vagus (X)
(craniosacral) Brain • Most important
cranial nerve
Cranial nerves • 90% of all cranial
• Occulomotor (III) axons
• Facial (VII) • Increase peristalsis &
• Glossopharyngeal (IX) GIT secretions
• Heart: bradycardia & 
contraction force
• Bronchoconstriction

Sacral S2-4 cord

Pelvic nerves
Bowel/bladder emptying Spinal cord
ANS functions are largely antagonistic
 Key three points
1. Nerves contain afferent and efferent
fibres that are distinguished based on
size and target organ
2. Somatic nervous system controls skin &
skeletal muscle, ANS controls visceral &
cardiac systems
3. Reflexes are used to control the various
functions of the body systems
 NEXT WEEK
• THUR - LECTURE 9 – SPECIAL SENSES

• TUE/WED/THUR – LAB 6 Nervous system