Chapter 9: Muscular System
9.1 Functions of the Muscular System
Types of Muscle Tissue
Cardiac muscle
- found only in the heart, and its
contractions provide the major
force for moving blood through
the circulatory system
autorhythmicity
- nervous or hormonal stimulation
is not always required for them to
contract.
major functions of all three types of
muscle:
1. Movement of the body
a. Most skeletal muscles are
responsible for most of the
body movement like
walking and chewing.
2. Maintenance of posture
a. Most of the skeletal
muscles remains tone
which keeps the body
erect
3. Respiration
4. Production of body heat
5. Communication
6. Constriction of organs and
vessels.
a. can help propel and mix
food and water in the
digestive tract
7. Contraction of the heart.
9.2 General Properties of Muscle
Tissue
four major functional properties
1. Contractility
ability of muscle to shorten
forcefully, or contract
2. Excitability
the capacity of muscle to
respond to an electrical
stimulus.
3. Extensibility
a muscle can be stretched
beyond its normal resting
length and still be able to
contract.
4. Elasticity
the ability of muscle to
spring back to its original
resting length after it has
been stretched.
9.3 Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
Whole Skeletal Muscle Anatomy
skeletal muscle fibers
- Cells that consists in skeletal
muscles
Connective Tissue Coverings
Fascicles – Visible Bundles
that composes the muscle
tissue
Perimysium – connected
tissue that surround the
Fasciculus
Epimysium - dense irregular
collagenous connective tissue
that surrounds the entire
muscle
Fascia - a general term for
sheets of dense irregular
collagenous connective tissue
within the body
Muscular fascia - located superficial
to the epimysium and separates
individual muscles or groups of
muscles.
Muscular System | Histology
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sarcoplasmic reticulum - T tubules lie

Nerves and Blood Vessels
motor neurons - specialized
nerve cells responsible for
stimulating skeletal muscle
contraction
adjacent to the highly organized smooth
endoplasmic reticulum
sarcoplasm - numerous mitochondria
and energy-storing glycogen granules,
are packed into the cell and constitute
the cytoplasm
myofibrils- bundles of protein filament
that contained cytoplasm

Skeletal Muscle Fiber Anatomy myofilaments – long thin protein

filaments than contained myofibril
A single fiber can extend the entire
length of a muscle. In most muscles, the Actin myofilaments - thin
fibers range from myofilaments, are approximately 8
approximately 1 nanometers (nm) in diameter and 1000
millimeter (mm) to nm in length
about 4 centimeters
myosin myofilaments- thick
(cm) in length and from
myofilaments, are approximately 12 nm
10 micrometers (μm)
in diameter and 1800 nm in length.
Striated - As seen
in a longitudinal
section, alternating
light and dark bands
give the muscle
fiber a striated (strī
′at-ed; banded), or
striped, appearance

Muscle Fiber Development

Myoblasts - Muscle fibers develop Sarcomeres - highly ordered units that
from less mature, multinucleated arranges actin and myosin

Hypertrophy – Enlargement - basic structural and functional

unit of skeletal muscle because it
Histology of Muscle Fibers is the smallest portion of skeletal
Sarcolemma - plasma membrane of muscle capable of contracting.
a muscle fiber
delicate connective tissue layers Isotropic Bands - light-staining bands
1. external lamina – deeper and
thinner
- consists mostly of reticular
(collagen) fibers and is so thin
that to see it, a powerful electron
microscope is needed.
2. Endomysium - second layer
also consists mostly of reticular
fibers, but it is a much thicker
layer
transverse tubules - tubelike
invaginations of the sarcolemma

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- Each I band includes a Z disk and
extends to the ends of the myosin
myofilaments
Anisotropic Bands - dark-staining band
in the center of each sarcomere
- Each A band extends the length
of the myosin myofilament within
a sarcomere.
Actin and Myosin Myofilament
Structure
Each actin myofilament is composed of
two strandsof Fibrous Actin:
- tropomyosin Molecules
o an elongated protein that
winds along the groove of
the F actin double helix
- Troponin Molecules
o composed of three
subunits
 binds to actin,
 binds to
tropomyosin,
 a binding site for
Ca2+
acetylcholine - an organic molecule
composed of acetic acid and choline.
globular actin (G actin)
- Each F actin strand is a polymer
of approximately 200 small,
globular units
- has an active site, to which
myosin molecules can bind
during muscle contraction.
myosin molecules
- this composed Myosin
myofilaments
- shaped like golf clubs
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- Each myosin molecule consists of
two myosin heavy chains
wound together to form a rod
portion lying parallel to the
myosin myofilament and two
myosin heads that extend
laterally
The myosin heads have three
important properties:
(1) The heads can bind to active
sites on the actin molecules to form
cross-bridges;
(2) the heads are attached to the rod
portion by a hinge region that can
bend and straighten during
contraction; and
(3) the heads are ATPase enzymes,
which break down adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), releasing
energy. Part of the energy is used to
bend the hinge region of the myosin
molecule during contraction.
Neuromuscular Junction Structure
action potentials - motor neurons
carry electrical signals
- stimulate muscle fiber action
potentials followed by muscle
contraction
neuromuscular junction (Synapse)
- point of contact of motor neuron
axon branches with the muscle
fiber
- a neurotransmitter a substance
released from a presynaptic
membrane that diffuses across
the synaptic cleft and alters the
activity of the postsynaptic cell.
Sliding Filament Model
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(a) Relaxed sarcomere - , the actin (1) The concentration of K+ inside

and myosin myofilaments overlap the plasma membrane is higher
slightly, and the H zone is visible. than that outside the plasma
a. The sarcomere length is at membrane
its normal resting length. (2)
b. As a muscle contraction is
initiated, actin
myofilaments slide past
the myosin myofilaments,
the Z disks are brought
closer together, and the
sarcomere begins to
shorten.
(b) Fully contracted sarcomere - the concentration of Na+ outside the
the A bands, which are equal to plasma membrane is higher than
the length of the myosin that inside the plasma membrane
myofilaments, do not narrow (3) the plasma membrane is more
because the length of the myosin permeable to K+ than to Na+.
myofilaments does not change,
millivolts –units can measure resting
nor does the length of the actin
membrane potential
myofilaments.
a. In addition, the ends of 1. In a resting cell, there is a higher
the actin myofilaments are concentration of K+ (purple
pulled to and overlap in the circles) inside the cell membrane
center of the sarcomere, and a higher concentration of
shortening it and the H Na+ (pink circles) outside the cell
zone disappears. membrane. Because the
membrane is not permeable to
9.4 Skeletal Muscle Fiber Physiology
negatively charged proteins
Excitability of Muscle Fibers (green) they are isolated to inside
of the cell membrane. K+
- Muscle fibers, like other cells of
concentration gradient Na+ leak
the body, are electrically excitable

Ion Channels
1. Ligand-gated ion channels.
open when a ligand, a chemical
signal such as a neurotransmitter,
binds to a receptor that is part of
the ion channel
a. Neurotransmitter - binds
to ligand-gated Na+
channels in the
membranes of the muscle
fibers
2. Voltage-gated ion channels. channel K+ leak channel
These channels are gated PrPrPrPrPrPrNa+ K+
membrane channels that open Sodiumpotassium pump 1
and close in response to a 2. There are more K+ leak channels
particular membrane potential. than Na+ leak channels. In the
resting cell, only the leak
The Resting Membrane Potential
channels are opened; the gated
the result of three factors: channels (not shown) are closed.
Because of the ion concentration

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differences across the step 2). As the inside of the cell

membrane, K+ diffuses out of the becomes positive, this voltage change
cell down its concentration causes additional permeability changes
gradient and Na+ diffuses into the in the plasma membrane, which stop
cell down its concentration depolarization and start repolarization.
gradient. The tendency for K+ to Repolarization results from the closing
diffuse out of the cell is opposed of voltage-gated Na+ channels and the
by the tendency of the positively opening of voltage-gated K+ channels
charged K+ to be attracted back (figure 9.10,
into the cell by the negatively
step 3). Thus, Na+ stops moving into
charged proteins
the cell, and more K+ moves out of the
3. The sodium-potassium pump
cell. These changes cause the inside of
helps maintain the differential
the plasma membrane to become more
levels of Na+ and K+ by pumping
negative and the outside to become
three Na+ out of the cell in
more positive. The action potential ends,
exchange for two K+ into the cell.
and the resting membrane potential is
The pump is driven by ATP
reestablished when the voltage-gated
hydrolysis. The resting
K+ channels close
membrane potential is
established when the movement all-or-noneprinciple - all action
of K+ out of the cell is equal to potentials are identical.
the movement of K+ into the cell.
1. Resting membrane potential.
Na+ channels (pink) and some,
Action Potentials
but not all, K+ channels (purple)
o a reversal of the resting
membrane potential
such that the inside
of the plasma
membrane becomes
positively charged
compared with the
outside.
Threshold - depolarization
changes the membrane potential
to a value
are closed. K+ diffuses down its
depolarization phase - a brief period
concentration gradient through
during which further depolarization
the open K+ channels, making
occurs and the inside of the cell
the inside of the cell membrane
becomes positively charged
negatively charged compared to
repolarization phase - the return of the the outside.
membrane potential to its resting value. 2. Depolarization. Na+ channels
are open. Na+ diffuses down its
step 1). When the cell is stimulated,
concentration gradient through
gated Na+ channels open, and Na+
the open Na+ channels, making
diffuses into the cell. The positively
the inside of the cell membrane
charged Na+ makes the inside of
the plasma membrane more
positive. If this depolarization
reaches threshold, many voltage-
gated Na+ channels are stimulated
and open rapidly, causing Na+ to
diffuse into the cell until the inside
of the membrane becomes positive
for a brief time (figure 9.10,

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positively charged compared to
the outside.
3. Repolarization. Na+ channels
are closed, and Na+ movement
into the cells stops. More K+
channels open. K+ movement out
of the cell increases, making the
inside of the cell membrane
negatively charged compared to
the outside, once again.
action potential frequency - the
number of action potentials produced
per unit of time.
The Function of the
Neuromuscular Junction
Acetylcholinesterase - keeps
acetylcholine from accumulating within
the synaptic cleft producing many action
potentials and continuous contraction in
the muscle fiber.
Summary of Skeletal Muscle
Contraction
1. An action potential travels along
an axon membrane to a
neuromuscular junction.
2. Ca2+ channels open and Ca2+
enters the presynaptic terminal.
3. Acetylcholine is released from
presynaptic vesicles.
4. Acetylcholine stimulates
Na+ channels on the
postsynaptic membrane to open.
5. Na+ diffuses into the muscle
fiber, initiating an action potential
that travels along the sarcolemma
and T tubule membranes.
6. Action potentials in the T tubules
cause the sarcoplasmic reticulum
to release Ca2+.
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7. On the actin, Ca2+ binds to
troponin, which moves
tropomyosin and exposes myosin
head attachment sites.
8. ATP molecules on myosin heads
are broken down to ADP and P,
which releases energy needed to
move the myosin heads.
9. The heads of the myosin
myofilaments bend, causing the
actin to slide past the myosin. As
long as Ca2+ is present, the
cycle repeats.
power stroke - Movement of the myosin
molecule while the cross-bridge is
attached
recovery stroke - return of the myosin
head to its original position after cross-
bridge release
Muscle Relaxation - occurs when
acetylcholine is no longer released at
the neuromuscular
junction.
Three major ATP
dependent events
are required for
muscle relaxation:
1. After an action
potential has
occurred in the
muscle fiber, the
sodium-potassium pump must actively
transport Na+ and K+ to return to and
maintain resting membrane potential.
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2. ATP is required to detach the myosin
heads from the actin and return them to
their resting position.
3. ATP is needed for the active transport
of Ca2+ into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
9.5 Whole Skeletal Muscle Physiology
The Muscle Twitch - A single, brief
contraction and relaxation cycle in a
muscle fiber
lag phase (latent phase) - gap
between the time of stimulus application
to the motor neuron and the beginning
of contraction
contraction phase - the time
during which contraction occurs
relaxation phase - the time
during which relaxation occurs
Motor Units - consists of a single motor
neuron and all the muscle fibers it
innervates
Motor Unit Number - Motor units in
different muscles do not always contain
the same number of muscle fibers
Stimulus Strength and Motor Unit
Response
The force of a contraction is
increased in two ways:
(1) Summation involves
increasing the force of
contraction of the muscle
fibers within the muscle, and
(2) recruitment involves
increasing the number of
muscle fibers contracting.
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Treppe - muscle fiber, when stimulated
in rapid succession, contracts with
greater force with each subsequent
stimulus, a phenomenon
- occurs in a muscle fiber that has
rested for a prolonged period.
multiple-motor-unitsummation - e
relationship between increased stimulus
strength and an increased number of
contracting motor units
- A subthreshold stimulus is not
strong enough to cause an action
potential in any of the axons in a
nerve and does not cause a
contraction.
- As the stimulus strength
increases, it eventually becomes
a threshold stimulus, which is
strong enough to produce an
action potential in a single motor
unit axon, causing all the muscle
fibers of the motor unit to
contract.
- Progressively stronger stimuli,
called submaximal stimuli,
produce action potentials in
axons of additional motor units.
- A maximal stimulus produces
action potentials in the axons of
all the motor units of that muscle.
Consequently, even greater
stimulus strengths (called
supramaximal stimuli) have no
additional effect.
Stimulus Frequency and Whole
Muscle Contraction
- An action potential in a single
muscle fiber causes it to contract,
but the action potential is
completed long before the
contraction phase is completed
incomplete tetanus - muscle fibers
partially relax between the contractions
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complete tetanus - , muscle fibers 1. Type IIa fibers have a well-

produce action potentials so rapidly that developed blood supply, more
no relaxation occurs between them. mitochondria, and more
myoglobin.
multiple-wave summation - frequency
2. Type IIb fibers have large
of contractions increases, the increased
amounts of glycogen, a poor
tension produced
blood supply, fewer
mitochondria, and little
myoglobin.
Distribution of Fast-Twitch and Slow-
Muscle Length Versus Tension Twitch Muscle Fibers
Active tension - the force applied to an People who are good sprinters have a
object to be lifted when a muscle greater percentage of fast-twitch muscle
contracts fibers in their leg muscles, and people
active tension curve - muscle length who are good long-distance runners
plotted against the tension produced by have a higher percentage of slow-twitch
the muscle in response to maximal muscle fibers.
stimuli
1. Muscle contracts with less than
maximum force if its initial length is
shorter or longer than optimum. Effects of Exercise

2. Isometric contractions cause a 1. Muscles increase (hypertrophy) or

change in muscle tension but no change decrease (atrophy) in size because of a
in muscle length. change in the size of muscle fibers.

3. Isotonic contractions cause a change 2. Anaerobic exercise develops type IIb

in muscle length but no change in
muscle tension.
4. Concentric contractions cause
muscles to shorten and tension to
increase.
5. Eccentric contractions cause muscle
to lengthen and tension to decrease
gradually.
6. Muscle tone is the maintenance of
steady tension for long periods.
7. Asynchronous contractions of motor
units produce smooth, steady muscle
contractions.
9.6 Muscle Fiber Types
Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers
- break down ATP slowly and have
a welldeveloped blood supply,
many mitochondria, and
myoglobin.
Fast-Twitch Muscle Fibers
- Fast-twitch muscle fibers break
down ATP rapidly.
fibers. Aerobic exercise develops type I
fibers and changes type IIb fibers into
type IIa fast-twitch fibers.
Heat Production
1. Heat is a by-product of chemical
reactions in muscles.
2. Shivering produces heat to maintain
body temperature.
9.7 Energy Sources for Muscle
Contraction
Energy for muscle contraction
comes from ATP.
Aerobic and Anaerobic
Respiration
1. The ATP synthesized by
aerobic respiration produces
energy for muscle contractions
under resting conditions or
during exercises such as long-
distance running. Although
ATP is produced more
efficiently, it is produced more
slowly.
2. The ATP synthesized by
anaerobic respiration provides

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energy for a short time during
intense exercise. Anaerobic
respiration produces ATP less
efficiently but more rapidly
than aerobic respiration.
Lactate levels increase
because of anaerobic
respiration.
Creatine Phosphate - provides a
means of storing energy that can be
rapidly used to help maintain adequate
ATP in contracting muscle fibers.
Recycling of ADP
Muscle Fatigue
Muscle Soreness
Oxygen Deficit and Recovery Oxygen
Consumption
9.8 Smooth Muscle
distributed widely throughout
the body and is more variable
in function than other muscle
types.
dense bodies
Actin myofilaments
attached to this structures
intermediate filaments
1. Smooth muscle cells are
spindle-shaped with a single
nucleus. They have actin
myofilaments and myosin
myofilaments but are not
striated.
2. The sarcoplasmic reticulum
is poorly developed, and
caveolae may function as a T
tubule system.
3. Calcium ions enter the cell
to initiate contraction;
calmodulin binds to Ca2+ and
activates an enzyme that
transfers a phosphate group
from ATP to myosin. When
phosphate groups
attached to myosin, cross-
bridges form.
4. Relaxation results when
myosin phosphatase removes
a phosphate group from the
myosin molecule.
■ If phosphate is removed
while the cross-bridges are
attached, relaxation occurs
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CHAPTER 9: MUSCULAR 9
very slowly, and this is referred
to as the latch state.
■ If phosphate is removed
while the cross-bridges are not
attached, relaxation occurs
rapidly.
Types of Smooth Muscle
1. Visceral smooth muscle fibers
contract slowly, have gap junctions (and
thus function as a single unit), and can
be autorhythmic.
2. Multiunit smooth muscle fibers
contract rapidly in response to
stimulation by neurons and function
independently.
Electrical Properties of Smooth
Muscle
1. Spontaneous contractions result from
Na+ and Ca2+ leakage into cells; Na+
and Ca2+ movement into the cell is
involved in depolarization.
2. The autonomic nervous system,
hormones, and chemicals produced
locally can inhibit or stimulate action
potentials (and thus contractions).
are
Hormones can also stimulate or inhibit
contractions without affecting membrane
potentials.
Functional Properties of Smooth
Muscle
1. Smooth muscle can contract
autorhythmically in response to stretch
or when stimulated by the autonomic
nervous system or hormones.
2. Smooth muscle maintains a steady
tension for long periods.
3. The force of smooth muscle
contraction remains nearly constant,
despite changes in muscle length.
4. Smooth muscle does not develop an
oxygen deficit.
are
Regulation of Smooth Muscle
1. Smooth muscle is innervated by the
autonomic nervous system and is
involuntary.
2. Hormones are important in regulating
smooth muscle. Certain hormones can
increase the Ca2+ permeability of some
smooth muscle membranes and
therefore cause contraction without a
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change in the resting membrane

potential.
9.9 Cardiac Muscle
striated, have a single nucleus, are
connected by intercalated disks (and
thus function as a single unit), and are
capable of autorhythmicity.
9.10 Effects of Aging on Skeletal
Muscle
Aging skeletal muscle is
associated with reduced
muscle mass, increased time
that muscle takes to contract in
response to nervous stimuli,
less precise muscle control,
and a longer recovery period.

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