carbon dioxide, water

sunlight, chlorophyll
 thin surface for quick diffusion of gases

many stomata on the lower suface,

thick waxy cuticle to prevent water loss

Guard cells present to close stomata when there is water stress

1. to overcome the need for continuous manufacture

2.In times of scarcity/ when conditions are not right for photosynthesis, the plant can

utilise stored food for respiration

3. For special functions like in reproduction- food stored in fruits and seeds

,storage organs
1. Glucose is very reactive and so cannot be stored

2. Glucose is soluble and so cannot be stored in one area

3. if glucose was stored then there would be unecessary movement of water

into and out of leaf cells due to osmosis

1. dip leaf in boliing water for one min

2. boil leaf in ethanol to remove chlorophyll

3. rinse leaf in water and place on white tile

4. flood leaf with iodine solution and observe

5. the parts of the leaf containing starch will appear blueblack in colour
 they have teeth in the mouth which physically break down food into smaller pieces
increasing the surface for efficient chemical digestion. there are differeent types of

like incisors (bite food into small pieces, canines tear food, molars crush and grind)

the stomach wall is muscular and contracts to crush food into a paste called chyme
the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower

Firstly there must be copulation/sexual intercourse

The sperm(male gametes) are ejaculated into the vagina at the base of cervix

The sperm then swim up the cervix, up the uterus and up into the fallopian tubes
where one sperm will fuse with one ovum ( female gamete)
 the plant embryo is found in the seed which is not attached to the parent but is

dispersed therefore a larger nutrient store is needed for the embryo to develop and for

germination to be possible. Human embryos do not need large nutrient stores as they

eventually implant into the uterus lining of the mother, develop a placenta , and obtain

nutrients from the mother until birth.

 for the male this permanent method would be a vasectomy where the vas deferens

are cut and tied off. and the female is the tubal ligation where the oviducts and cut

and tied off. 1. the surgery for males is less invasive than for females less blood loss

2. More recovery time for females than males

3. More health risks associated with female surgery (eg ectopic pregnancies )

4. The vasectomy costs less than the tubal ligation

 wild flowers, grass

hawk, snake

rabbit, mouse

1.producers absorb sunlight and make their own food via photosnthesis
(convert light energy into chemical energy)
2. This energy can now be passed on to consumers when they feed thus allowing
the entire food web to be sustained

predation, competition

sunlight/ light intensity, carbon dioxide, soil pH, nutrients in soil

 At the bottom of the food web there is more energy and so more organisms
can be supported, however as you move up the food web, energy is lost
at each trophic level due to mainly heat lost in respiration therefore

at the top less energy can only support a few organisms.

if hawks become extinct: 1. number of rabbits and mouse increase

as there are no hawks to feed on them
2. the number of snakes could increase as they have more food
3.increase in rabbits and mouse could decrease the numbers of producers

1. decomposers break down dead matter and so allow important nutrients to be

released back into the soil

2. these nutrients can then be recycled or reused by other oranisms in the food

web, thus cycling of nutrients occurs

 1. Pressure filtration/ ultrafiltration occurs at the bowman's capsule where

due to a high pressure in the glomerulus the small components of blood are pushed

into the bowmans capsule forming the filtrate( water, salts, ureaa, glucose)

2. Selective reabsorbtion of glucose back into the blood occurs at the proximal
convoluted tubule
3. Reabsobtion of water back into the blood occurs at the loop of Henle

4. Selective reabsorbtion of water and salts occurs at the distal convoluted tubule

and collecting ducts and depends on level of ADH

5. the filtrate is now called urine and flows into the pelvis down the ureters to the

bladder.
 one additional process not focused on in urine production is secretion where

unwanted substances such as excess hydrogen ions in the blood are directly
secreted into the distal convoluted tubule to be gotten rid of in the urine

a diabetic person has a higher concentration of glucose in their blood and so

in the nephron, the filtrate also has a high concentration of glucose, therefore

at proximal convuloted tubule not all of it can be reabsorbed back into the

blood and some remains in the filtrate and thus the urine
 similarity: hormones are involved in the regulation of both, a negative
feed back mechanism is used for both

Differences:for maintaining blood sugar levels insulin and glucagon are used

for osmoregualtion ADH is used

the pancreas is involved in the maintaining of blod sugar as it secretes

the necessary hormones

for osmoregulation the hypothalamus and pituitary gland are involved

and secretes ADH which has an effect on the kidney.

1. by reducing the sugar intake in the diet

2. by reducing the levels of salt in the diet

by doing this the kidneys are not overworked and chances of damage are

reduced
The major function is oxygen transport.

RBCs have haemoglobin which can bind reversibly to oxygen to that it can be

transported throughout the body

biconcave disc shape provides a large surface area for max oxygen transport

thin and flexible to move easily though capillaries

no nucleus so that max oxygen transport possible

As shown above the child can have a 25% chance of having either one

of the four blood groups .

 The organisms that have the most advantageous characteristics in the environment

survive, reproduce and pass on their advantageous characterisitcs to their offspring.

eventally most of the population would have these advantageous characteristics.

This process keeps populations well adapted to theri environment. In any population

more offspring are produced than survive so there must be a struggle for existence

This is natural selection because the bacteria exposed to a selection pressure

(the antibiotic). Those with the selective advantage (the resistance gene)
survive, reproduce and pass on the resistance gene to offspring. If the same

antibiotic is always used eventually the same thing explained above happens

and the population of resistant bacteria keeps growing. this is natural selection
as the organism with the most advantageous charateristics survive, reproduce

and pass on the advantageous characteristics to the offspring.

by selectively breeding crops with the characteristics that are advantageous

to him, he can produce new varieties of crops in a short space of time

he may also be able to produce crops that are pest and disease resistant

He can also produce crops with higher yield and of better quality
 1. LongerTails were an advantageous trait - perhaps those with the

longer tails had resistance against the poison in the toads

2. Longer tailed iguanas survived more as the poison didnt kill them

3. Since there were more long tailed iguanas surviving they reproduced

passing this trait to offspring time and time again

 For the iguanas to be considered a new species, the difference in physical

physical features is not enough, if they could not interbreed with shorter tailed

iguanas to produce fertile offspring then they would be considered different species.

This was not the case therefore they were still considered the same species.

Speciation is the formation of one or more species from a previously existing one.
1. Isolation by a geographical barrier- if the population was separated by a geographical
barrier eg a river or mountain range then the seperated groups cannot interbreed
(reproductive isolation) and
may become adapted to their different sides and may become so different over a long time

period that they cannot interbreed to produce fertile offspring when brought together.

2. A population can also become isolated due to their behaviour in the same area.
or due to different ecological roles. This lessens the chances that the groups interbreed

and so eventually the groups can become so different that they cannot interbreed to

produce fertile offspring and so become different species.

one mecahnism responsible for one species forming from another is natural

selection.