CSEC BIOLOGY

MANUAL OF ESSENTIAL NOTES

By Kevin Jared Hosein

Based purely on syllabus requirements.

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 SECTION A (1/2)
LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

WHAT IS A LIVING ORGANISM?

All living things are made up of CELLS. Thus, there are two types of organisms:

UNICELLULAR - These organisms are only MULTICELLULAR - These organisms

made of one cell. They usually have simple
structures and do not rely on a transport system
for their nutrients. They instead move dissolved
gases and nutrients around by the process of
diffusion. They do not rely on sexual
reproduction to continue their species, instead
reproducing by splitting in two. Common
examples include: Bacteria, amoeba, yeast
require a more complex structure and
specialized systems may be necessary to
enable to organism to digest and
transport food, escape predators, seek
shelter and find a sexual mate to
continue the species.

All living organisms have specific characteristics, listed in the table below:

Characteristic Description

GROWTH Permanent increase in size by increasing dry mass and number of cells.

RESPIRATION Release of energy through a molecule known as ATP for the metabolism1.

IRRITABILITY Detection and response to a change in the environment, such as temperature.

MOVEMENT An action by an organism, causing a change in position or place. 2

NUTRITION Taking in, utilization and storage nutrients from different sources.

EXCRETION Removal of metabolic waste, toxic products and excess in the body.

REPRODUCTION Production of new individuals to continue the species.

1 - Metabolism refers to THE CHEMICAL PROCESSES THAT OCCUR IN THE BODY.

2 - Plants move by orienting their leaves and stems towards sunlight, or through the downward growth of
their roots. While plants can move their body parts or grow in a particular direction, they cannot direct
their bodies from one location to another. When an organism is able to move from one location to
another, this is termed LOCOMOTION (or WHOLE MOVEMENT).

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CLASSIFYING SPECIES

Each organism belongs to a certain species. Members of the same species:

1. Have very similar physical and biological characteristics.

2. Are able to interbreed and produce viable, FERTILE offspring.

Artificial classification involves categorising by certain features of anatomy. For example, take into
account the organisms below. Find THREE categories to differentiate the ant and termite below.

Characteristic Flying Ant Termite

ANTENNAE Has bowed antennae. Has straight antennae.

BODY SHAPE Has a thin division between Has a wider abdomen.

thorax and abdomen.

WINGS Has less segments. Is densely segmented.

List THREE anatomical/physical features that can separate A – E into TWO distinct categories.

1. Only one dorsal fin (A and D). B, C and E have two dorsal fins.
2. Only B has whiskers. The others do not have whiskers.
3. Only B and D have distinctly forked tailfins. A, C and E have more rounded tailfins.
4. C and E have striped tailfins, while the others do not.

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Unreliability of Artificial Classification

Using artificial classification depends on identifying organisms by physical or anatomical characteristics

(or morphology). This can be problematic for identifying organisms of the same species for several
reasons.

Reason Explanation
All organisms inherit Organisms can widely vary in appearance due to characteristics inherited
different genetic traits from parents. Humans, for example, vary widely in height, weight, skin
from their parents. colour, hair texture and many other features. Yet we are all the same
species, Homo sapiens.

Maturity causes Members of the same species change physical appearance during maturity.
changes in appearance. Examples include tadpoles turning into frogs and chicks shedding their
yellow feathers.

Males and females of a Different genders of the same species may have differing characteristics.
species may look Examples include lions, for which the females don’t have manes, and male
different. peacocks which have large, colourful feathers.

NATURAL CLASSIFICATION

Natural or modern classification is based on an Organisms are identified by a binomial name: a

organism’s DNA base sequences and
evolutionary descent and is structured as a
hierarchy, with each level being called a
TAXON. It is much more accurate than simply
observing a species’ anatomy.
GENUS and a SPECIES. For example, lions and
tigers belong to the same genus (Panthera), but
have different species names. While a lion is
known as Panthera leo, a tiger is Panthera
tigris. A few more examples of genuses are
shown below.

Genus Name Example Species within Genus

CANIS lupus (wolf) | aureus (jackal) | latrans (coyote)

EQUUS burchellii (zebra) | asinus (donkey) | ferus caballus (horse)

CITRUS limon (lemon) | paradisi (grapefruit) | sinensis (orange)

HOMO sapiens (modern) | habilis, neanderthalensis (early)

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 TAXONOMY

According to the Whittaker model, each organism belongs to one of FIVE KINGDOMS:

Kingdom Description Example

PLANTAE Multicellular, able to photosynthesise, have Hibiscus, algae, mosses

chlorophyll and cell wall.

ANIMALIA Multicellular, must feed on other organisms to Humans, corals, birds, snakes
obtain nutrition, no cell wall.

FUNGI Multicellular, cannot photosynthesise, must Mushrooms, yeast, mold

absorb food, has cell wall.

PROKARYOTA Unicellular, no nucleus (prokaryote), either Bacteria, archaea

or MONERA photosynthesise or ingest food through
absorption.

PROTISTA Unicellular, have a nucleus, either Amoeba, protozoa

photosynthesise or absorb food.

Later models of the taxonomy system have more than five kingdoms,
such as by splitting bacteria in two types of kingdoms.

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Organisms are arranged in the taxa that starts at a kingdom and ends at a species. Take the gray wolf,
Canis lupus, for example below.

Taxon Level Name Description

KINGDOM Animalia It is a multicellular organism that must feed on others to live.

PHYLUM Chordata It has a backbone and nerve running along it.

CLASS Mammalia It is a mammal; can regulate its body temperature.

ORDER Carnivora It is a carnivore; only eats other animals.

FAMILY Canidae It is either a coyote, jackal, fox or wolf.

GENUS Canis It is a type of wolf.

SPECIES Lupus It is specifically a gray wolf.

NOTE: Viruses are not classed under any kingdom because they are not considered living organisms.

EUKARYOTIC AND PROKARYOTIC CELLS

Characteristic Eukaryotic Prokaryotic

Unicellular or Multicellular? Can be both unicellular and Only unicellular.

multicellular.

How is the DNA arranged? Found in a nucleus, in No nucleus. DNA is in loose

chromosomes. threads.

Size and examples Larger. Examples: Amoeba, Smaller. Examples: Bacteria,

animals, plants archaea

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EXERCISE: On this page, draw ONE member of each of the following phylums or classes, give their
binomial names and label TWO major defining characteristics for each.

1. Mollusca 4. Echinoderm 7. Aves

2. Porifera 5. Arthropoda 8. Arachnida
3. Cnidarian 6. Chondrichthyes

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WHAT IS AN ECOSYSTEM?

An ecosystem is defined as A SYSTEM OF LIVING AND NON-LIVING FACTORS THAT

INTERACT WITH EACH OTHER.

An ecosystem is a combination of two factors:

Factor Description Examples

BIOTIC All organisms that either produce their own Plants, bacteria, animals
food or consume other organisms for food.

ABIOTIC The physical features of the environment, Water, sunlight, pH, salinity,
which will affect the types of numbers of turbidity, climate
the species populations living in the
ecosystem.

Other definitions
Observe the diagram of the food chain:

 A POPULATION is a group of one

species within a particular habitat, e.g. the
 An organism’s role in its environment is
group of snakes make up a population. Two
called its NICHE. This includes its
plants may be separate species and thus
behaviour, interactions, how it meets its
comprise two populations.
needs for food and shelter and how it
 A COMMUNITY is all the populations of reproduces. If too many organisms or
different species in a particular habitat, species occupy the same niche, there will be
e.g. the grasses, grasshoppers, frogs, snakes COMPETITION.
and hawks all comprise a community.

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 The place where an organism lives is its grassland. Habitats may be classified as
HABITAT. In this case, the habitat is a TERRESTRIAL or AQUATIC.

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FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
A food chain represents THE FEEDING SEQUENCE OF ORGANISMS TO TRANSFER ENERGY.
There are three main categories of organisms in the food chain, stated below:

Category Description

AUTOTROPHS Organisms that produce food by photosynthesis. They use sunlight to convert
(producers) materials such as oxygen and water into nutrients.

HETEROTROPHS Organisms that eat other organisms to gain their food. These obtain energy
(consumers) from other organisms on which they feed.

DECOMPOSERS Organisms that obtain nutrition by breaking down the dead remains of other
organisms and absorbing nutrients, releasing CO2 as a result.
Examples include: Bacteria and fungi

NOTE: Decomposers are not to be confused with CARRION FEEDERS, which are organisms such as
vultures, and DETRITIVORES, like earthworms that seek and consume already-dead organisms.

ENERGY TRANSFER IN A FOOD CHAIN

Energy moves from organism to organism in a food chain. While materials may be recycled, energy is
described as a unidirectional flow, as it cannot be directly returned to an organism or the Sun.

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Each stage in the food chain is known as a
TROPHIC level. Energy decreases through
each successive trophic level. For example, the
deer will never get 100% of the energy from the
plants they eat. They only get about 10%
because the other 90% energy is used for the
plants’ life processes (such as growth,
excretion and reproduction).
Imagine the solar energy the plants get is 100%.
This means the plant uses 90% and can only
pass on 10% to the deer. Similarly, when the
tiger eats the deer, it only has 1% of the total
energy and must compensate by EATING
MORE OFTEN OR METABOLIZING MORE
SLOWLY.

NOTE: Most food chains are limited to four to six trophic level links because:
THERE WOULD BE TOO LITTLE ENERGY AVAILABLE TO SUSTAIN LIFE ON
HIGHER TROPHIC LEVELS.

SOIL

Soil is described as an important ABIOTIC factor in an ecosystem, as it can affect the lives of plants and
thus affect the trophic levels above it because:

1. It can provide a suitable HABITAT for organisms such as earthworms and insects. A soil habitat
is known as EDAPHIC.

2. It can retain WATER and MINERALS for plant growth and development.

3. It helps provide ANCHORAGE for plants, preventing them from being uprooted.

The top layer of most soils is called HUMUS, which is comprised of the natural decay of materials such
as leaves and animal matter that have accumulated. It is the most fertile layer.

SOIL WATER RETENTION

In soil water retention experiments, a fixed mass of soil sample is placed in filter paper folded over a
funnel. A recorded amount of water is then poured into the sample. After a certain amount of time, the
water drains through the soil and into a measuring cylinder below.

NOTE: A fertile mixture of humus, sand and clay is called a LOAM.

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FOOD WEBS
A food web is a combination of several food chains within a habitat or ecosystem.
Identify a(n):
- Autotroph: ALGAE
- Herbivore: TADPOLE
- Carnivore: FROG
- Omnivore: SMALL FISH
- Tertiary Consumer: KINGFISHER
- Predator/Prey: FROG AND SNAIL

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

Category Description

PYRAMID OF Represents the number of a certain species at each trophic level in a habitat.
NUMBERS Usually, the shape of the pyramid will be broad at the base and narrow at the top.
However, there are cases where the base is the narrowest. For example, there may be
MANY producers (broad base) or just one (e.g. the only producer might be one tree).

PYRAMID OF Represents the total amount of food available in each trophic level at any one
BIOMASS time. In the following food chain: Grass  Rabbit  Fox: There is a higher mass of
grass than rabbits, so enough food can be available for the rabbits. Same with the
rabbits and foxes.

PYRAMID OF Represents the amount of energy retained at each trophic level, with only 10%
ENERGY being transferred to each successive level. The shape is the same as the pyramid of
biomass.

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ORGANISM RELATIONSHIPS
Predation
When one animal hunts and eats another animal, the hunter is known as the PREDATOR while the
hunted is known as the PREY. In such a relationship, the number of predators is almost always less than
the number of prey. A typical population size for a predator-prey relationship is depicted below.

Section What is happening

A Predator pop. high because prey pop.
is high
B Prey pop. decreases because predator
pop. is too high; food is depleted.
C Prey is allowed to reproduce since
predator pop. is low. Predator pop.
then increases once again.

Predators and prey are usually adapted to their roles. Predators will have certain characteristics such as
sharp teeth or the ability to engage their prey with stealth, while prey will be able to burrow, hide or run
away, or employ certain mechanics as CAMOUFLAGE to hide from predators.

Biological controls
In some cases, ecologists prefer to use a predator in order to control a pest population. This is usually
preferable to using agricultural chemicals. There are advantages and disadvantages to this.

Advantages of Biological Controls Disadvantages of Biological Controls

Targets a specific pest. Can result in disruptions in the food web if the
control becomes a predator.

Does not result in air and land pollution, such Takes a long time to work properly, unlike using
as pesticides. chemical control.

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 Is a long-term solution and less manual Research is expensive.
labour is required in the long run.

Symbiotic Relationships

Symbiosis refers to RELATIONSHIPS WHERE AT LEAST ONE ORGANISM BENEFITS.

There are THREE main relationships in an ecosystem that can be classified as symbiotic:

Relationship Description Examples

PARASITISM One organism is

Ticks feed on mammals’
harmed while the
blood. They benefit by
other benefits.
obtaining nutrients while the
mammal is harmed. Other
examples include lice,
mosquitoes and tapeworms.

COMMENSALISM One organism benefits

Remora fish attach to
and the other is
sharks and use them for
neither harmed nor
transport to obtain food.
benefits.
The remora benefits but
the shark is unaffected.

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MUTUALISM Both organisms
benefit from the
relationship.

Oxpeckers eat ticks off

Bacteria that live in root
the zebra. They benefit by
nodules fix nitrogen for
getting food. The zebra
the plant. The bacteria
benefits by the parasitic
benefit by getting a place
ticks being removed.
to live.

How are parasitic relationships different from predator/prey relationships?

Predator-prey relationships involve the prey being hunted, killed and eaten by the predator. Parasitic
relationships do not involve the parasite killing the host, but harming and feeding off of them.

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NATURAL SELECTION
Natural selection is a process that favours species that are BEST ADAPTED to their environments.
Species that that cannot adapt will either die out or have to migrate to another habitat, where they could
adapt. Natural selection is commonly known as “survival of the fittest”.
The above photograph is a popular example of
natural selection. Biston betularia (peppered
moth) had two variants: white and black.
Before the industrial revolution in Britain, the
white speckled moth was more abundant
because they were well CAMOUFLAGED on
lichen tree trunks.
COMPETITION
Competition can be defined as a relationship
where multiple organisms seek the same limited
resources they need in order to survive, e.g.
NOTE: Natural selection can
occur via a SELECTIVE
PRESSURE e.g. if bees prefer
red flowers to pink, they would
have heavy influence over
survival of the red flowers.
The black moths were spotted by predators and
eaten. White moths then reproduced and their
population size increased.
However, the industrial revolution caused
pollution which deposited black soot on the
trunks. This time, the black moth was more
well-camouflaged than the white moth.
Predators then ate the white moths, leaving the
black variant as the majority of the peppered
moth population.
FOOD, WATER, SHELTER
Competition can exist between organisms of the
same species or with different species. Usually
the stronger or faster members of the species
survive. The losers either die out or have to
migrate from the habitat.
If organisms manage to occupy different niches,
they can both survive in the same habitat. A
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good example of this is the Galapagos Island finches, discovered by Charles Darwin.

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FACTORS THAT RESULTED IN EVOLUTION IN DARWIN’S FINCHES

Factors Explanation

Geographical The finches had no natural predators. They were separated physically from
isolation each other, limiting competition. They learnt to occupy different habitats.

Diet, variation Short-beaked finches fed on fruits and nuts while long-beaked ones fed on
and worms. They did not have to compete for food as a result. They separated into
behavioural various groups and reproduced, amplifying these physical features.
differences
Other species may separate due to being active at different times of day
(temporal), not being physically compatible (mechanical) or having different
mating rituals (behavioural).

Over time, this led to SPECIATION, which is the rise of a new and distinct species.

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INTERPRETING GRAPHS AND CONSTRUCTING TABLES
Ensure the following when constructing a table:

1. The table is neatly enclosed.

2. All units are stated in the headings, if any. Do not repeat units below heading.
3. Decimal places are consistent, e.g. Don’t use 2 d.p. for one reading 1 d.p. for another.
4. A title is placed above the table. Ensure it efficiently describes the data represented.
e.g. Table showing Population Count of Frogs and Snakes from 2001 – 2005.

Observe the graph below and construct a table replicating its data.

Construct a table using SIX of the points below.

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ECOLOGICAL STUDIES AND SAMPLING METHODS

Quadrats

It is difficult to survey all the different
organisms in an area, so various sampling
methods are done to assess the biotic factors of a
chosen area. Ecological studies are done to:
 determine population counts over time
 research species relationships
 assess damages from a disaster/disease
Most small ecological studies are carried out
using a QUADRAT. A quadrat is a square frame
with a fixed dimension, commonly 1m each
side. Within this frame is usually a series of
wires or strings forming a grid, which can be
labelled for further studies. The quadrat can be
used in two ways:

1. TRANSECT - A straight path is chosen and the quadrat is laid out in intervals along that track,
with the species being counted each time. Transects are especially useful for merging habitats
(ECOTONES), such as when a shoreline merges into a dense woodland. A transect can also be
useful in larger tree areas, because quadrats may too small for these.

2. RANDOM - The quadrat is tossed from a certain point in various directions. Eyes are closed to
prevent bias. Or the quadrat is laid down on random locations on the survey site. Sometimes these
sites can be decided by random numbers for coordinates.

After performing the survey with the quadrats, the species are counted and tallied. Certain factors can be
accounted for in the studied area:

Factor Description

SPECIES DENSITY Measured by counting the number of times a chosen species occurs within the
quadrats and calculating the average number per unit area .

SPECIES FREQUENCY Measured by counting how many times the species was recorded in the
quadrats, e.g. a species that has occurred 2 times in 10 quadrats has a 20%
frequency of occurrence.

COVER Measured by estimating the area each species covers in the entire quadrat,
e.g. if a quadrat measures 1m2 in area and a shrub takes up 0.5m2 of the
quadrat, it has taken up 50% cover.

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EXAMPLE QUESTION:

Ten quadrats of 1m2 are randomly placed along the same vegetation. X’s are recorded where the species is
present. The results are recorded as follows:

Species No. of Recorded Species by Quadrat Number

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Plant A 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 2
Plant B 1 1 2 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
Plant C 0 2 3 6 0 0 16 0 2 1

(i) State the frequency of Plant B. = 60%

(ii) Calculate the species density of Plant C. Number = 2 + 3 + 6 + 16 + 2 + 1 = 30

Density = 30 / 10m2 = 3 species per m2
22m2
(iii) Suggest TWO reasons why none of the species was found at quadrat 5.
The soil could have been infertile or too sandy. No water available. There could have been
some human construction, such as concrete.
OTHER SAMPLE COLLECTION METHODS

1. SWEEP NET - where a net is swung from side to side along a transect. The contents of the net are then
emptied into a container and counted. Dip nets can also be used to obtain organisms from water sources,
such as ponds.

2. PITFALL TRAP - A jar is buried in a patch of

soil and camouflaged by foliage to collect insects.
The top of the jar is kept at ground level. In the jar
would be antifreeze to kill the organisms that fall in.

3. POOTER JAR - A device in which insects or

invertebrates can be actively collected in a jar by
sucking through a tube at one end.

4. MARK, RELEASE, RECAPTURE - A small no.

of mobile organisms in a region is captured, marked
and released back into their habitat. A sample is then
later recaptured, which is then observed for
previously marked organisms and counted.

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 SECTION A (2/2)
HUMAN IMPACT ON ENVIRONMENT / PHOTOSYNTHESIS

POPULATION GROWTH

The diagram below shows a typical growth curve for a stable population in an ecosystem.

The growth rate will decelerate, stop or decrease due to a number of factors:

Category Description

OVERCOMPETITION Population may be too large and unvaried and resources such as food, water
and shelter are limited.

INVASIVE SPECIES A new predator migrated into the habitat and reduces the population of many
organisms, e.g. lionfish in Caribbean marine habitats

ECOLOGICAL Natural disasters or human intervention and activity can disrupt the natural
DISRUPTION habitats of organisms, displacing them.

DISEASE If the population has little variation, a disease can wipe out a large subset of
them.

HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH

Why has the human population climbed so much in

The last century?

- Discovery of vaccines
- Discovery of antibiotics
- Awareness of communicable diseases
- Greater food availability and shelter
- Medical technology, such as X-rays and MRI’s

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 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES

Category Definition Examples

RENEWABLE Can be reused or replenished in a Solar energy, wind energy, water,

relatively short time. forests

NON-RENEWABLE Are in finite supply and cannot be Fossil fuels, bauxite, gold
replenished in a short time.

METHODS OF WASTE REDUCTION

One major problem with an expanding population is the increasing amount of waste produced, the limited
space available for disposal and the improper disposal of refuse. Waste can be classed as either:

 BIODEGRADABLE, meaning they can be broken down quickly by microorganisms.

E.g. Paper, wood, food, sewage, cloth
 NON-BIODEGRADABLE, meaning they take a very long time to be broken down.
E.g. Glass, plastic, rubber, polystyrene

1. REDUCE the amount of waste you create. Choosing biodegradable paper bags instead of plastic bags, or
switching off lights when not in use. Carpooling and public transport can also reduce the amount of fuel used.

2. REUSE waste materials by finding other purposes for them. Refilling water bottles at home, reusing bags
instead of throwing them away, repairing instead of buying new, using waste for creative purposes.

3. RECYCLE materials by breaking their structure down and transforming them into new materials. Throw
waste into respective recycling bins or take empty bottles to recycling factories.

HUMAN IMPACT ON CORAL REEFS

Activity Effect

BLAST FISHING May destroy the reef structure, e.g. using dynamite or cyanide

OVERFISHING Disrupts marine and coral reef food webs (e.g. Caribbean monk seal).
This allows invasive species such as starfish to destroy coral reefs.

TOURIAM Coral is depleted when it is harvested to be sold, or by tourists.

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NOTE: Sewage runoff from coastal communities and hotels also play a big role.
CARBON CYCLE

Three human impacts on carbon cycle:

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 Activity Consequence

DEFORESTATION Less trees means less

photosynthesis is occurring,
meaning atmospheric CO2
levels remain high.

FOSSIL FUEL Raises CO2 levels by

COMBUSTION combustion and emission.

SEWAGE RUNOFF Excess CO2 causes oceans to

AND OCEAN become acidified, affecting
POLLUTION marine population life.

 PHOTOSYNTHESIS - Plants undergo this process and remove CO2 from atmosphere.
 CONSUMPTION - When animals eat the plants, they gain carbon in their bodies.
 RESPIRATION - When animals breathe, they exhale CO2.
 DECOMPOSITION - When animals die, decomposers break them down, also releasing CO 2.
 FOSSILIZATION - Decomposed material become fossil fuels after many years.
 COMBUSTION - When fossil fuels are burnt, they release CO 2 into atmosphere.

AIR POLLUTION AND THE GREENHOUSE GASES

Greenhouse gases are said to be the main cause

of THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT and climate
change, as well as rising sea levels. The main
greenhouse gas is CO2.

 When sulphur dioxide and nitrogen

oxide combine, they form a layer of
thick haze called SMOG, which can
cause respiratory diseases, such as .
Most air pollution occurs mostly due to the
 Sulphur dioxide can also combine with
release of combusted emissions from factories
the rainwater to form ACID RAIN,
and factories. These include greenhouse gases,
which can disrupt habitats such as lakes
which prevent the Sun’s heat from escaping the
and coral reefs.
Earth’s atmosphere.
Other greenhouse gases:
- Methane
- Nitrous oxide
- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s)
AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS AND EUTROPHICATION

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Water pollution usually results when untreated sewage and agricultural chemicals or pesticides leak or
run-off into natural water sources. When the NITRATES and PHOSPHATES in pesticides leak into
water ecosystems, they can speed up the growth of underwater plants such as algae. This is known as
EUTROPHICATION or ALGAL BLOOM, and can:

 Prevent SUNLIGHT from reaching underwater plants, preventing photosynthesis.

 Cause ASPHYXIATION in aquatic organisms by depleting oxygen resources.

As the fish and

algae run out of
oxygen, they are
decomposed by
bacteria. The
bacteria greatly
uses up oxygen
in the water as
well.

Agricultural chemicals can also lead to LEACHING, where the chemicals dissolve into the soil and
depletes its usable nutrients, making it unsuitable for plant growth.

EFFECTS OF IMPROPER SEWAGE AND GARBAGE DISPOSAL

Effect Detail

Habitat Loss The pollution can destroy the living areas of some organisms,
causing them to migrate.

Disease Animal and insect pests live and feed in garbage, such as flies and
rats. They can carry bacteria that cause cholera and leptospirosis.

Flooding Flooding causes sewage to be brought to the surface of the land,

bringing harmful bacteria with it and contaminating the
environment.

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EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION

Effect Reason

Soil erosion Without tree cover, the force of rain will be greater on the soil.
Without roots to hold the soil together, erosion is more likely.

Flooding Soil can quickly become compacted and waterlogged without tree
cover and roots, leading to flooding.

Habitat loss Many birds and insects live in trees. Cutting the trees down causes
these organisms to migrate.

Loss of aesthetic Trees and plants are used in parks and ‘green spaces’ in urban areas
to beautify the environment. Without them, cities look grey and
drab.

CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION

Conservation is the preservation of the Earth’s natural resources so that they are available for future
generations. Conservation is important for two main reasons - to ensure that our demand for natural
resources can continue to be met, and to maintain our quality of life.

Strategy Detail

Legislation Moratoriums on hunting certain species. Hunting bans on certain

animals. Laws against poachers.

Proper agricultural Using good practices such as crop rotation to keep soil fertile.
techniques
Banning ‘slash and burn’ practices that destroy soil.

Reafforestation Replanting trees that have been cut down.

Captive breeding Ensuring that endangered species are kept in sanctuaries and proper
breeding grounds, safe from poachers.

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS

DEFINITION: Photosynthesis is the process whereby light energy is absorbed by

CHLOROPHYLL and transformed into chemical energy used in the synthesis of
carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is released during the process. Water
and carbon dioxide are the raw materials for photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide + Water  Glucose + Oxygen + ATP
6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2 + ATP
NOTE: While photosynthesis only occurs at daytime, respiration must occur all the time.

There are TWO main stages to photosynthesis:

Stage What happens

LIGHT-DEPENDENT Light energy is captured by chlorophyll in the chloroplast and

then converted into a usable energy called ATP. Light energy
causes PHOTOLYSIS, which splits water molecules into
HYDROGEN and OXYGEN (released as a biproduct)

LIGHT-INDEPENDENT The HYDROGEN produced in photolysis is used to REDUCE

carbon dioxide to glucose. The ATP required for this process
comes from the light-dependent stage. Enzymes also help speed
up the reactions.

TESTING FOR STARCH

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 1. The simplest carbohydrate is GLUCOSE. It is used for RESPIRATION.

2. If glucose is formed faster than it is used up, the excess is converted to STARCH for storage. It
can occur even in the roots or underground storage organs. To test for starch, we add IODINE
and experience a BLUE-BLACK colour change.

3. In darkness, when photosynthesis stops, enzymes in the leaves change starch to SUCROSE,
which is transported to other parts of the plant. To destarch or remove starch from the leaves, one
can put the plants in darkness for about two days.

4. Why destarch before an experiment? This is because starch is an indicator in a leaf that
photosynthesis has already taken place. To correctly test to see if plants can experience
photosynthesis under certain conditions, one should get rid of this already-formed starch before
the experiment takes place, or results would be inaccurate.

Outline for experiment

Why do plants need glucose?

1. The glucose is used for RESPIRATION or the release of energy.
2. It is used to form STARCH and PROTEINS for storage and for the synthesis of new
protoplasm. They may be converted to SUCROSE at night.
3. It is used to produce CELLULOSE for cell walls.
4. It is used to form FRUITS and FOOD STORES IN SEEDS.

Remember there are several requirements for photosynthesis. If ONE of these were absent,
photosynthesis will not occur and glucose will not be produced. Thus, no starch will be stored. These
factors that are required are called LIMITING FACTORS and they include:
Light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, temperature, water availability.

30
Effects of Light Intensity on Photosynthesis
The rate of photosynthesis increases as light
intensity increases, since higher
light intensity excites more electrons. However,
at a certain point all of the available electrons
are excited, and the maximum rate is reached.
This means the rate will stay constant even
when light intensity is increased past this point.

In the experiment to the left, an aquatic plant

named ELODEA is used. When undergoing
photosynthesis, it releases OXYGEN as a
biproduct, seen as rising bubbles gathering at the
top of the inverted test tube.

As light intensity increases, the NO. OF

OXYGEN BUBBLES will also increase because
photosynthesis occurred at a faster rate.
However, past a certain light intensity, the
oxygen level will be the same throughout.

Necessity of Carbon Dioxide on Photosynthesis

The necessity of carbon dioxide can be tested by

placing the plant or some of its leaves in
POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE (KOH).

This removes the CO2 from the sample. Since

plants require CO2 to form glucose, an iodine
test will come up negative for the leaves or plant
exposed to KOH (potassium hydroxide).

31
32
EXTERNAL LEAF STRUCTURE
The diagram below shows the cross-sectional structures of a monocot and dicot leaf.

Many dicot leaves in particular have features that allow them to maximize photosynthesis and glucose
production for the plant. These include:

Feature How it helps maximize photosynthesis

Large surface area Allows maximum exposure to sunlight.

Petiole Orients leaf towards sunlight for maximum exposure.

Dense network of veins Allows sufficient water to enter leaf for photosynthesis.

Many stomata Maximizes gaseous exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen.

33
INTERNAL LEAF STRUCTURE
The diagram below shows the cross-sectional structure of a dicot leaf.

Section Function/Adaptation

UPPER EPIDERMIS Has a WAXY CUTICLE above it to prevent water loss. Is

TRANSPARENT to let sunlight into leaf. Contains few to no
stomata.

PALISADE MESOPHYLL Is densely packed with CHLOROPLASTS. Main site of

photosynthesis.

SPONGY MESOPHYLL Has many loose AIR SPACES to allow flow of gases and
water. Contains few chloroplasts.

LOWER EPIDERMIS Contains GUARD CELLS that open and close STOMATA to
allow gaseous exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

VASCULAR BUNDLE Contains the XYLEM and PHLOEM, which allow transport of
(vein) water and food respectively in leaf. Also contains the
CAMBIUM, which is the site of growth for stems.

34
 SECTION B (1/5) – NUTRITION

CELL STRUCTURE

Organelle Role Animal Cell Plant Cell

NUCLEUS Contains genetic material (DNA and YES YES

RNA) Also regulates activites of other
organelles.

MITOCHONDRION Site of respiration (energy release). YES YES

CYTOPLASM Holds all organelles together. Also the YES YES

site of some chemical reactions.

CELL MEMBRANE Allows entry and exit of some YES YES

substances. Partially permeable.

CHLOROPLAST Site of photosynthesis (food production NO YES

using light).

CELLULOSE CELL Support and maintains internal water NO YES

WALL pressure in cell, prevents bursting.

VACUOLE Small and Large and

Storage of water and minerals.
temporary permanent

NOTE: Plant cells store glucose as STARCH GRAINS in their cells while animals store it as
GLYCOGEN GRANULES.

35
ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS AND TISSUES

Examples of Systems in the Human Body

System Purpose Specialized Cells, Tissues or

Organs

CIRCULATORY Supplies oxygen and nutrients to the body. Heart, blood, arteries, veins

DIGESTIVE Breaks down food and delivers products to Stomach, pancreas, small and
the blood. large intestines, teeth

NERVOUS Sends electrical messages in the body. Neurones, nerves, brain

RESPIRATORY The intake and exchange of gases in the air. Lungs, ribcage, diaphragm

EXCRETORY Removes wastes and regulates water Kidneys, nephrons, bladder

balance.

IMMUNE Helps fight disease-causing organisms. Lymphocytes, phagocytes, spleen

REPRODUCTIVE Functions to create offspring. Ovaries, testes, uterus, prostate

SPECIALIZATION

Specialized or differentiated cells have specific tasks in multicellular organisms and thus, they have
features and adaptations in order to assist in performing that task. Below are just a few examples:

36
DIFFUSION AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT The opposite of diffusion is Active Transport,

Diffusion is defined as THE MOVEMENT OF which is defined as THE MOVEMENT OF

MOLECULES FROM A HIGH TO LOW MOLECULES FROM LOW TO HIGH

CONCENTRATION UNTIL EQUILIBRIUM. CONCENTRATION, USING ATP.

The energy from diffusion comes from the

Along concentration gradient – high to low
natural energy in molecules. There are factors
Against concentration gradient – low to high
that speed up diffusion, such as:
TEMPERATURE, CONC. GRADIENT

USES OF DIFFUSION

Location Description

Lungs The exchange of O2 and CO2 between the lungs and bloodstream.

Small intestine The movement of digested nutrients from the intestines to the blood.

Leaves The movement of CO2 and O2 in and out of the stomata.

USES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Used in Description

Root hair cells Used to transport mineral salts into plant.

Nerve cells Used to transport electrical impulses.

Small intestine Used to transport sodium into the blood from the intestines.

37
OSMOSIS is defined as THE MOVEMENT OF WATER MOLECULES FROM A HIGH TO LOW

CONCENTRATION ACROSS A PARTIALLY PERMEABLE MEMBRANE.

Like diffusion, osmosis is a passive process, meaning it does not use ATP.
The water will move into the tubing,
causing it to swell. This is because
there is a lower concentration of water
in the tubing.

The water level drops in the beaker

and the level rises in the capillary
tube. Sugar molecules cannot pass out
because they are too large.
Osmosis Effects on Plant Cells
Observe the three plant cells below. Each one has been placed in a different solution.

Placed in Movement of Appearance

Water

Cell A AIR (control) No change. Remains turgid.

Cell B DILUTED Water flows into Becomes more turgid and swells. Vacuole
SOLUTION the cell from expands as water comes in.
solution.

Cell C CONCENTRATED Water flows out of Becomes plasmolysed. Cell membrane and
SOLUTION the cell and into cytoplasm retracts from cell wall. Vacuole

38
 solution. shrinks as water is lost.

Osmosis Effects on Animal Cells

HYPERTONIC is
another word for a
concentrated solution.

HYPOTONIC for
The above diagrams show three sets of red blood cells, only found within animals. diluted solutions.
The first diagram shows water moving out of the cell because it has been placed in a CONCENTRATED
solution. The cell shrivels and is said to be CRENATED.
The second diagram shows water moving in because it has been placed in a DILUTED solution. As a
result, the cell bursts. The reason why an animal cell bursts, but not a plant cell is because the plant’s
CELL WALL is strong enough to withstand the turgor pressure.

Importance of Osmosis

The table below will show several situations where osmosis is necessary.

Important For Example

Kidneys Helps balance the water level in the blood on cold and hot days. Regulates the
amount of water in the urine.

Fish Regulates how the salt and water balance in fish’s urine that allows them to
survive in either saltwater or freshwater.

Blood Helps regulate water, salt and glucose levels in the blood. Prevents red blood
cells from bursting or shrivelling.

ENZYMES

39
Enzymes are used in ALL chemical reactions in living things; this includes respiration, photosynthesis,
movement, growth, excretion of toxins in the liver and more. They lower the ACTIVATION energy
required to initiate reactions and speed up reactions in the body. They are called biological catalysts.
 The molecules that enzymes act upon are  Enzymes are made of PROTEINS.
called SUBSTRATES. In the end, they turn
these substrates into PRODUCTS. So, for  Enzymes are SPECIFIC for each chemical
example, when we eat, the enzyme reaction. In terms of the digestive system,
AMYLASE found in saliva is used to turn the this means that an enzyme can only react
substrate STARCH into a sugar called with ONE NUTRIENT, e.g. the enzyme
MALTOSE. pepsin in the stomach digests proteins,
but not fats or starch.
 Certain enzymes also have to be within a pH to work (e.g. enzymes working in an acidic pH, as in the
stomach, may not work in the intestines).

EXAMPLES OF ENZYMES
Enzyme Produced by Substrate  Product

Amylase Salivary glands, pancreas Starch  Maltose

Pepsin Stomach Proteins  Polypeptides  Amino acids

Trypsin Pancreas Proteins  Polypeptides  Amino acids

Lipase Pancreas, small intestine Fats  Fatty acids and Glycerol

Catalase Liver Hydrogen peroxide*  Hydrogen and Water

* When hydrogen peroxide builds up in your body, it turns hair grey. Catalase breaks
down hydrogen peroxide.You produce less catalase as you get older, so more
hydrogen peroxide builds up and your hair turns grey faster.

40
FACTORS THAT AFFECT ENZYME ACTIVITY
There are TWO main factors that affect enzyme activity and can denature an enzyme:
1. TEMPERATURE 2. pH (acidity)
Enzymes are easily DENATURED (or
destroyed) by HEAT. Our enzymes work best at
NORMAL BODY TEMP. (37oC).
Too much heat can break down the structure of
the enzyme. When this happens, the substrate no
longer fits because THE ACTIVE SITE
CHANGES. When this happens, the enzyme is
said to be DENATURED.

pH refers to how acidic or alkaline something is.

Certain parts of the body are acidic, such as the
STOMACH, while others are alkaline, such as
SMALL INTESTINE.

pH level goes from 1 – 14.

 Acidic is under 7.
 Alkaline is over 7.
Optimum pH of pepsin: 3  And neutral is 7.
Optimum pH of trypsin: 7.5
DENATURATION EXPERIMENT
Observe the four test tubes. State the one where
digestion of bread will be successful and explain
why the others will experience no digestion.
II will digest the bread.

I cannot because the HCl denatures the enzyme.

III cannot because there is no enzyme.

IV cannot because the heat from the boiled water

denatures the enzyme.

41
BALANCED DIET

A balanced diet can be defined as A DIET THAT CONTAINS ALL THE REQUIRED NUTRIENTS IN
THE CORRECT PROPORTIONS.
When nutrients are lacking or in excess, this is termed MALNUTRITION This could lead to
nutritional deficiency diseases, or if in excess, could result in physiological diseases such as
DIABETES, HYPERTENSION and CORONARY HEART DISEASE.

Uses of water:
1. Acts as a SOLVENT to absorb, dissolve and
transport materials in the body.
2. To produce SWEAT to regulate body
temperature.
3. To produce URINE, to excrete urea and
excess water.
4. Allows new PROTOPLASM to be
synthesised in cells.

MACRONUTRIENTS

NUTRIENT FUNCTION SOURCES EXTRA NOTES

CARBOHYDRATES Provides energy Simple: Syrups, Carbohydrates are made of

for respiration. candies, fruits carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. They are stored as
STARCH in plants and
Complex: Rice, GLYCOGEN in animals.
bread, potatoes Simplest form is GLUCOSE.

PROTEINS Used for growth Meat, eggs, red Proteins are made of
and cell repair. beans nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, etc.
They are broken down into
AMINO ACIDS.

LIPIDS (fats and oils) Helps store energy Olive oil, potato ‘Good’ fats are termed
for warmth and chips, butter, unsaturated (e.g. avocadoes)
insulation. avocadoes while ‘bad’ is saturated (e.g.
pizza, cake)

42
MAIN VITAMINS AND MINERALS

VITAMIN FUNCTION SOURCES DEFICIENCY DEFICIENCY

DISEASE SYMPTOMS

A Promotes eyesight Carrots, butter, NIGHT Inability to see in dim

in dim light. Helps fish oils, green light.
maintain skin and leafy vegetables BLINDNESS
soft tissue.

B Helps with Bran, cereals BERI-BERI Fatigue, fainting.

respiration.

C Helps with Oranges, SCURVY Sensitive, bleeding

repairing linings tomatoes, bell gums.
and tissues in the peppers, guavas
body.

D Helps absorb Dairy products, RICKETS Bones bend or break

calcium for bone tuna, salmon, easily.
development. sunlight exposure

CALCIUM Helps with bone Dairy products Same as above. Same as above.
and teeth
development.

IRON Helps produce Liver, spinach, ANAEMIA Reduced production of

haemoglobin for beetroot haemoglobin in red
blood cells, fatigue,
red blood cell fainting.
production.

The following two minerals are especially important in plants:

NUTRIENT FUNCTION EXTRA NOTES

NITROGEN For growth of shoots Usable in the nitrate form in the plant. Without it,
and leaves. plants have stunted growth and small leaves.

MAGNESIUM For chlorophyll Without it, plants’ leaves turn yellow and eventually
production. wither. This is called chlorosis.

43
FOOD TESTS

NUTRIENT REAGANT / PROCEDURE COLOUR CHANGE

Reducing Sugar Place food sample in a boiling tube with

Blue  Green  Brick Red
(Glucose) BENEDICT’S SOLUTION and place in a
heated water bath until colour changes.

Non-reducing Place food sample in a boiling tube with

Blue  Green  Brick Red
sugar (Sucrose) HCl and boil for 1 minute. Neutralize HCl
with sodium carbonate. Then heat wwith
BENEDICT’S SOLUTION.

Orange-yellow  Blue-black
Starch Add a few drops of IODINE SOLUTION.

A translucent stain appears.

SPOT TEST: Rub food sample against a
thin piece of paper.
Lipid/Fats
A cloudy white emulsion if fat
EMULSION TEST: Mix sample with
is present.
ethanol and water and shake vigorously.

Protein BIURET TEST: Add copper sulphate and

Blue  Purple/Violet
sodium hydroxide to food sample and mix.

44
THE ALIMENTARY CANAL:

45
SECTION WHAT OCCURS THERE ENZYMES PRESENT

MOUTH Food is broken down MECHANICALLY to AMYLASE

increase surface area for enzyme interaction

Starch is digested CHEMICALLY by

salivary amylase.

OESOPHAGUS PERISTALSIS allows food to be carried -----------

into the stomach.

STOMACH The chewed food is churned with acids and PEPSIN

enzymes into a mixture called CHYME.
RENNIN (in babies)
Proteins are broken down by PEPSIN.

LIVER BILE is secreted, which EMULSIFIES fats. CATALASE

Bile is eventually stored in the
GALLBLADDER.

PANCREAS Releases juices to NEUTRALIZE stomach AMYLASE

acid and numerous ENZYMES to digest
TRYPSIN
carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
LIPASE

DUODENUM Allows bile and pancreatic juices and Same as above.

(small intestine) enzymes to digest food.

ILEUM Contains villi, which allows the -----------

(small intestine) absorption of food into the blood.

COLON Helps with absorption of water and -----------

(large intestine) dissolved vitamins.

RECTUM/ANUS Stores solid waste (FECES) before it is -----------

(large intestine) EGESTED from the body.

46
 STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN TOOTH

Tooth Suited for Part of Tooth Purpose

INCISORS Cutting food ENAMEL Protection of inner tooth

CANINES Tearing meat DENTINE Protects pulp cavity

PREMOLAR AND Grinding food into PULP Contains blood vessels and
MOLARS smaller pieces CAVITY nerves

CEMENT Holds tooth to gum

DENTAL HYGIENE
Teeth can rot when carbohydrates or sugars are left on the enamel. Bacteria feed on the sugars and
secrete ACIDS to digest it. These acids wear away the ENAMEL and cause toothaches. Keeping
teeth healthy involves using toothpastes high in FLUORIDE, FLOSSING regularly and avoiding
sugary foods at night before sleep.
FIBRE

Fibre (or roughage) is found in foods such as VEGETABLES, FRUITS AND WHOLEWHEAT.
Most fibres are insoluble and cannot be fully broken down by the human digestive system. These are
used to move digested food through the gut (by the process of PERISTALSIS). Soluble fibre can
also make stools softer and easier to egest.

47
 A lack of fibre and water in the diet may lead to a back-up of food in the intestines, leading to
the hardening of the faeces, a condition called CONSTIPATION.
 DIARRHOEA, on the other hand is mostly caused by improper handling of food. Insects such as
FLIES can deposit disease-causing organisms called pathogens on the food. When a person ingests
the food, their body tries to get rid of it by producing excess water.

48
FACTORS AFFECTING DIET

Factor Reason
Occupation Busy lifestyles encourage more purchasing of high-fat fast food.

Diseases Diabetics must consume less carbohydrates. Hypertension sufferers consume less salt.

Pregnancy Pregnant women must consume more minerals and proteins to aid in the development of the
fetus. They must also consume more food altogether.

ASSIMILATION

After the digested nutrients have been absorbed into the bloodstream from the villi in the small
intestine, they are then transported to cells in various parts of the body by the blood, so they can
be utilized. This process is called assimilation. Here are a few things that occur with assimilated
glucose and amino acids (simple proteins).

1. Glucose is used for RESPIRATION to release ATP. Excess glucose gets stored as FATS
or GLYCOGEN in the liver of humans, or STARCH grains in plant cells.

2. Amino acids are used for GROWTH and REPAIR of cells. They may be used to form
hormones and enzymes as well. Excess gets converted to UREA and are eventually
excreted by the kidneys.

Absorbed nutrients are first sent to the

LIVER. This ensures that the toxins are
removed from the food before they become
assimilated into the cells.

NOTE: It is unnecessary (and possibly

harmful) to take supplements to ‘cleanse’ the
body or blood, as the liver and kidneys are
fully capable of doing this if no disease is
present.

NOTE: The hepatic portal vein transports nutrient-rich blood from the alimentary
canal to the liver. The hepatic vein transports blood from the liver to the heart.

49
 SECTION B (2/5)
RESPIRATION AND TRANSPORT

BREATHING IS NOT RESPIRATION

o Breathing or VENTILATION is the mechanism that moves air in and out of our lungs.
o Gaseous exchange is the process in which some of the oxygen in the air in our lungs diffuses
into the blood whilst some of the carbon dioxide in our blood diffuses into the air.
o Respiration is the release of energy due to the oxidation of glucose, if oxygen is available.

1. VENTILATION

Body Part Changes during inspiration Changes during expiration

Lung volume Increases Decreases
Diaphragm Contracts (flattens) Relaxes (domes)
Ribcage Moves upward, outward Moves downward, inward
Intercostal muscles Contract. Relax

2. GASEOUS EXCHANGE
It is important to note that you do NOT breathe in just oxygen and do NOT just breathe out just
carbon dioxide, but other gases as well. The main gases we inhale include:

GAS INHALED CONTENT (%) EXHALED CONTENT (%)

NITROGEN 78 78
OXYGEN 21 16
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.04 4
WATER VAPOUR ~1 2–3

While the air is in our lungs, some of the oxygen DIFFUSES into the red blood cells in the blood
and some of the carbon dioxide in the blood cells diffuses into the lungs to be exhaled.

NOTE:
The While more
respiratory complex
tract is prone toorganisms
infection (low
by SURFACE AREA:VOLUME RATIO) such as
mammals and
inhalation reptilesbodies.
of foreign have respiratory systems, gaseous exchange differs for other organisms
To filter the
Specialized cells called ___________ cells
such as:air, tiny hairs called ____________
inhaled
produce _____________ to act as a
act as a mechanical barrier against dust and
chemical barrier for microbes.
microbes.
 INSECTS have tubes called SPIRACLES that carry air into the abdomen.

 PROTOZOA, like amoeba, obtain oxygen through SIMPLE DIFFUSION.

50
 The respiratory tract is prone to
infection by inhalation of foreign
bodies. To filter the inhaled air, tiny
hairs called CILIA act as a
mechanical barrier against dust and
microbes.

Specialized cells called GOBLET

cells produce MUCUS to act as a
chemical barrier for microbes.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF ALVEOLI

The alveoli have several adaptations for carrying out their function of gaseous exchange.
Adaptation Explanation

LARGE SURFACE There are roughly 600 million alveoli, which collectively occupy a large
AREA area suited to maximize gaseous exchange.

THIN WALLS Alveolar membranes are only one cell thick, allowing quick diffusion.

MOISTURE Gases dissolve more easily in moisture.

MANY CAPILLARIES There is a dense capillary network around each alveolus.

51
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
There are TWO types of respiration:

Type Description Chemical and Word Formulae

AEROBIC ATP is released from glucose by oxygen Oxygen + Glucose -> Carbon dioxide
RESPIRATION (a process called OXIDATION), releasing
+ Water
carbon dioxide and water as excretory
products. 6O2 + C6H12O6 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O

ANAEROBIC In the absence of oxygen, ATP is Glucose  Lactic Acid

RESPIRATION produced when glucose is converted into
C6H12O6 -> 2C3H6O3
lactic acid. Relatively less ATP is
produced per molecule than aerobic.

In plants and yeast, no lactic acid is Glucose  Carbon dioxide + Ethanol

produced. Instead, ethanol and carbon
C6H12O6 -> 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH
dioxide are released. This is useful for
alcohol fermentation and bread-making.

ATP (ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE) is converted to ADP (ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE)

and then back again to ATP constantly. It is this that releases the energy from glucose.

OXYGEN DEBT
When one exercises vigorously until the point of anaerobic respiration, a chemical called
LACTIC ACID builds up in the muscles. This can lead to a burning sensation as well as
FATIGUE and MUSCLE CRAMPS.

During exercise, their heart rate also increases. This occurs to supply OXYGENATED BLOOD
to the muscles for respiration. However, the heart continues beating quickly even after exercise
finishes. Why?
Lactic acid must be dissipated from the muscle cells before the respiratory rate returns to
its resting phase.

52
 RESPIRATION EXPERIMENTS
The experiment below is to show that organisms produce CO 2 when they respire.

Jar Contains Note

1 Potassium hydroxide Removes CO2 from air entering the apparatus.

2 Calcium hydroxide Tests for CO2; A negative result is needed (limewater remains
(limewater) clear), so as to ensure no CO2 transfers to Jar 3.

3 Live specimen When respiring, specimen will release CO 2.

4 Calcium hydroxide Tests for CO2. Will test positive (cloudy white) if Jar 3’s
(limewater) specimen is respiring.

The experiment below is to show that heat is produced during respiration.

53
  Boil the peas in sample A to kill them.
Rinse both sets of peas in disinfectant.
 Set up apparatus as shown.
 Leave peas in flasks for three days.
 Read temperatures after that point.

1. What is the purpose of the disinfectant?

To kill the respiring bacteria.
2. What would be expected, and why?
No change in temperature over time.
3. What is one way we could make the
experiment more reliable?
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN FISHES Use a more reliable stopper than wool.
Fish are notable for not having lungs or
alveoli. Instead, they have GILLS, which
consist of a series of filaments that are able
to diffuse oxygen from water into the blood
capillaries, and diffuse carbon dioxide out.
The filaments increase the SURFACE
AREA of the gill.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN LEAVES

Dicot leaves have structures called guard
cells on their LOWER EPIDERMIS. These
guard cells may become turgid and flaccid
to control an opening called a STOMA. This
can regulate the rate of water loss, and
oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange in the
leaf.

COMPONENTS OF CIGARETTE SMOKE

Component Effect

Nicotine Acts as a stimulant. Increases heart and breathing rates.

54
Carcinogens Cancer-causing agents.

Carbon
Binds to the haemoglobin and limits the uptake of oxygen into the red
monoxide blood cells.

Tobacco Contains tar, which would clog the alveoli and result in a decrease in rates
of gaseous exchange.

55
TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN HUMANS

All large animals have circulatory systems. This is

because of their LOW SURFACE AREA : VOLUME
RATIO which means that their surface area is much
less than the volume of their bodies.

Unicellular organisms, like amoeba and protozoa, are

Microorganisms can transport materials by
DIFFUSION. This is because their SURFACE
AREA is large compared to their volume.
Substances do not have far to travel.
flatter in shape and so have a larger surface area to
volume ratio.
The human circulatory system consists of a series of
blood vessels, blood and a pump (heart).

Mammals have a double circulatory system, since the blood travels through the heart twice
on one complete journey around the body. This allows cells and tissues to have a rich
oxygenated blood supply and allows the blood to reach considerable distances due to the
changes in blood pressure in the heart chambers.

Type of Definition
Circulation

PULMONARY Deoxygenated blood is

carried to the lungs to
be reoxygenated
before returning to the
heart.

SYSTEMIC Oxygenated blood is

pumped from the heart
to the body and
deoxygenated blood
returns to the heart.

Note the following adjectives that relate to

organs:
 Lungs - Pulmonary
 Liver - Hepatic
 Kidney - Renal
 Stomach - Gastric

56
 Heart – Cardiac or Coronary
REMEMBER: LORD
Left Oxygenated
Right Deoxygenated

57
STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN HEART

BLOOD PRESSURE

Category What happens

SYSTOLE Ventricle muscles contract, forcing blood out of the heart

DIASTOLE Atria muscles contract and ventricles relax, refilling blood into them.

The usual human blood pressure is given as 120/80 mmHg and the heartbeat is regulated by the
PACEMAKER region of the heart. The pulse rate can be monitored by an EKG.

 Abnormally high blood pressure is called HYPERTENSION.

 Abnormally low blood pressure is called HYPOTENSION.

Many factors affect blood pressure including:

Factor Explanation

Fatty diet Clogging of arteries by fats and cholesterol (atherosclerosis).*

Excess sodium Kidneys must work harder to get rid of extra fluid caused by sodium.

Age Blood vessels become less elastic as we get older (arteriosclerosis).

* If arteries in the heart (coronary arteries) become clogged, bloodflow is restricted. If a blood
clot or thrombus forms, no oxygen can reach the cardiac muscles of the heart and the individual
can undergo CARDIAC ARREST or MYOCARDIAC INFARCTION.

58
BLOOD VESSELS – ARTERIES AND VEINS

ARTERIES VEINS
Transport of blood Away from the heart Into or towards the heart
Oxygenated or Oxygenated (except the Deoxygenated (except the
deoxygenated pulmonary artery) pulmonary vein)
Outer wall thickness Thick and elastic muscle Thin muscular layer
Valves Absent Present
Lumen size Small (high pressure) Large (low pressure)
Pulse Present Absent

CAPILLARIES AND TISSUE FLUID

The blood vessels that connect veins to

arteries and transports material from blood
directly to cells are called CAPILLARIES.

They are ONE CELL THICK, so as to

facilitate quick DIFFUSION. They often
connect organs to the bloodstream (e.g. villi
in the ileum, alveoli in the lungs)

Surrounding the cells is a liquid called

TISSUE FLUID, which help transport
diffused materials between the cells and the
capillaries. Tissue fluid is in direct contact
with the cells, not plasma.

59
BLOOD

COMPONENT ROLE APPEARANCE

BLOOD PLASMA Transports soluble material Yellow fluid.

(nutrients, hormones, etc.)

RED BLOOD Transports O2 and CO2 to Biconcave disc. Flexible. No nucleus.

CELLS and from cells.

PHAGOCYTES (or Engulfs bacteria and Large globular structure. Lobed nucleus.
macrophages) foreign bodies
(phagocytosis)

LYMPHOCYTES Releases antibodies to Large round structure. Round nucleus.

combat disease.

PLATELETS (or Produces blood clots to Small, irregular fragments.

thrombocytes) prevent infection.

Blood is a fluid that contains specialised cells. Blood is therefore considered a type of TISSUE.
These are the main components of blood.

ANTIGENS
Antigens are described as foreign substances that stimulate an immune response in a host body.
It leads to the production of ANTIBODIES by lymphocytes, which will eventually travel to and
eradicate the threat. Each antibody is antigen-specific, for e.g. The influenza virus has certain
antigens attached to it. These are detected by the white blood cells. White blood cells then target
the virus with specific antibodies to get rid of it.

60
 NOTE: Allergens also produce an immune
response. However, allergens are non-parasitic and
usually non-living factors, such as pollen or food.

BLOOD CLOTTING
When a tissue is damaged or wounded:

1. Blood releases PLATELETS and the CLOTTING FACTORS.

2. which converts PROTHROMBIN to THROMBIN, (with calcium and Vitamin K)
3. which causes FIBRINOGEN to form FIBRIN threads around wound,
4. which stops bleeding by forming a mesh of red blood cells and platelets (scab) before
proteins can allow new skin to grow beneath scab.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Aside from blood, another fluid flows
through our body called lymph. Lymph is
formed from proteins and tissue fluid
(located between capillaries and cells).

The purpose of lymph is to fight infection.

It does this by carrying LYMPHOCYTES.

Lymph is filtered through structures called

LYMPH NODES, most of which are located
along the neck and armpits.

STENTS AND ANGIOPLASTY

Angioplasty is the surgical repair or
unblocking of a blood vessel. This is done
by inserting a tiny tube called a catheter with
a balloon, and a wire stent. The balloon
inflates, expanding the vessel’s LUMEN.
Blood flow is then increased in the vessel.

STROKE

61
A stroke occurs when the brain becomes
deprived of oxygen. This is usually due to
a CAROTID artery being clogged
(which leads to the brain).

62
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

While humans have veins and arteries, the two main transport vessels in plants are known as the
XYLEM and PHLOEM. (which comprise the VASCULAR BUNDLE)

1. PHLOEM
The phloem transports organic nutrients
such as SUCROSE from leaves and storage
organs to other parts of the plant.

SIEVE TUBES are elongated cells joined

end to end to form a column. Walls between
two cells are perforated, forming sieve
pores.

As they lack the structures needed to carry

out many metabolic processes, they rely on
the COMPANION CELLS, lying close to
them, for their survival.
2. XYLEM
The xylem transports WATER and
dissolved minerals. Its cells form a
continuous hollow column. This allows the
water to flow easily along the xylem.

The cell walls are thickened with LIGNIN,

which prevents the xylem from collapsing
under tension created by
TRANSPIRATIONAL pull.

CAPILLARY action occurs due to the

xylem tubes being narrow. This occurs
because the water is COHESIVE, meaning
their molecules stick together, and
ADHESIVE, meaning their molecules stick
to surfaces easily.

63
TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is defined as
____________________________________
___________________________________.

1. Water is absorbed through the roots

Transpiration is defined as the process of
water movement through a plant and
evaporation through its stomata.
via OSMOSIS. From there it moves
from cell to cell until it gets to the
XYLEM in the stem.
2. Water moves up the xylem vessels
to other branching stems, and the
leaves attached to them. Due to a
changing water potential gradient,
this creates a constant
TRANSPIRATIONAL PULL.
3. Water is stored in the leaf until it is
evaporated through the STOMATA.

Factors that Affect Transpiration

Factor Reason

Stomata open wider to allow entry

Light
of more CO2 for photosynthesis.

Evaporation and diffusion of water

Temperature
occur at faster rates.

Moving air removes water vapour,

Wind speed
increasing rate of water diffusion.

Diffusion slows down as

Humidity
surrouding air is already moist.

64
PLANTS ADAPTING TO DRY ENVIRONMENTS

Plants which live in extremely dry environments

are called XEROPHYTES and have special
adaptations to limit their transpiration rate and
conserve water.

Observe the section through the Marram Grass

leaf to the left and note the adaptations.

Adaptation Purpose

SMALLER LEAVES Reduces water loss by transpiration due to reduced surface area.

DEEP ROOTS Better able to locate underground water sources.

SUNKEN STOMATA Water vapour becomes trapped in sinks and less likely to escape leaf.

WAXY CUTICLE Prevents water loss along the upper epidermis of leaf.

SUCCULENT TISSUES Has many large vacuoles to store water and mineral sap.

STORAGE OF FOOD IN THE BODY

Food storage is necessary in both plants and animals due to SCARCITY of resources during times of
drought or harsh climates. It also helps avoid continuous food intake.

 Animal storage would include GLYCOGEN in the liver and FATS in ADIPOSE tissue.

 Plant storage would include STARCHES, which can be found in roots, stems, leaves, fruits and
seeds. They may also be needed for the development of ENDOSPERMS in the seeds and for
stages of vegetative reproduction.

65
66
 SECTION B (3/5)
MOVEMENT AND GROWTH

MOVEMENT AND LOCOMOTION IN HUMANS

There are three main functions of the skeleton: MOVEMENT, SUPPORT and PROTECTION.
The skeleton is divided into two sections:

Section Bones involved

Cranium, vertebral column,

AXIAL
ribcage

Humerus, ulna, radius, femur,

APPENDICULA
tibia, fibula, pelvic girdle, etc.
R

 The inorganic content of the bone gives it its

structure and makes it strong. The inorganic
molecule is mostly CALCIUM and
PHOSPHOROUS.
 The inner part of the bone is known as the
MARROW. RED BLOOD CELLS are
produced there.

Bones and joints in an arm forelimb

JOINTS
Joints are located between bones. Most of them are used for movement. There are three types of joints to
learn at this level.

Name Movement Examples

FIXED No movement is involved here. Cranium

HINGE Only along one plane. Elbow (humerus and radius/ulna) and
knee (femur and tibia/fibula)

67
BALL and Can move in full circles. Shoulder (scapula and humerus) and
SOCKET hips (pelvic girdle and femur)

68
 Both the shoulder and hip, in addition to having a
ball and socket joint, are known as SYNOVIAL
joints. These contain SYNOVIAL FLUID to aid in
lubricating and nourishing the joint.
On the end of each bone, where it touches the other,
is a layer of CARTILAGE which allows the bones
to move past each other with a minimum of
FRICTION.
Ligaments are bundles of connective tissue made of
a type of protein called collagen. They connect
bones to other bones.

BONE STRUCTURE

JOINT HEALTH

Due to the complex nature of ball and socket joints, they are usually the ones that are most subject to
disease and wear. Surgical replacement of the hips and shoulders is not uncommon if the joints become
worn enough that they cause severe pain when used.

Other diseases and problems are characterized by inflammation and/or degeneration, such as
ARTHRITIS.

Wearing SUITABLE FOOTWEAR and having GOOD POSTURE is essential to maintaining bone and
joint health. Wearing high heels everyday can put excess force on the feet and can wear away the
cartilage easily.

69
MUSCLES
Muscle tissue is made of cells that are able to contract and relax. There are three main types of muscle
cells in the mammal:

Type Features Example Locations

SKELETAL or Is connected to bones by tendons. Can Biceps, triceps, quadruceps,

STRIATED contract and relax voluntarily and are abdominals
susceptible to fatigue.

SMOOTH Usually located around organs. Works Oesophagus, small and large
involuntarily. intestine, arteries

CARDIAC Contracts quickly. Works Heart muscle

involuntarily. Cannot regenerate.

Muscle cells have protein fibres, which are elastic

and can contract to allow flexing. All muscles
work in PAIRS. Whether they are skeletal muscle,
smooth muscle or cardiac muscle makes no
difference, all muscles must work in pairs.
They rely on the other of the pair to flex or extend.
They are referred to as ANTAGONISTIC as a
result.

The purpose of muscles is to help carry loads and overcome RESISTANCE. The ability for muscles to
remain firm while resting and overcome resistance is called MUSCLE TONE.

During exercise, muscles continuously contract and relax. Muscle fibres become damaged during this
process. When they are repaired and reformed by PROTEINS, they become thicker and denser.
Therefore, muscular growth actually occurs after exercise during rest periods.
Why isn’t locomotion necessary for plants?

Question Features

How would they get They can absorb water through their roots via osmosis. They store large
food and water? amounts of water in their large vacuoles. They photosynthesize to get food.

How would they Plants rely on pollinating agents such as insects or wind. Seeds can also be
reproduce? dispersed far distances by wind, animals and water.

70
EXTRA NOTES:

- The bones in the fingers and toes are called PHALANGES.

- The vertebral column consists of 33 individual bones.
- The ribcage consists of 24 ribs.
- The inner ear consists of 3 small bones called OSSICLES (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that vibrate to send
sound to the brain.

71
GERMINATION AND DISPERSAL OF SEEDS
A seed contains an embryonic plant and a food
store enclosed in the seed coat or TESTA.

After a period of DORMANCY, the germination

of the seed begins. This is often triggered by the
following factors:

1. Warmth

2. Presence of moisture

3. Presence of oxygen

In a seed, the young root or RADICLE emerges first, followed by the shoot or EPICOTYL (plumule).
These then grow and branch as the young plant develops.

Seeds are displaced a distance away from their parent plants by a various set of mechanisms.

Dispersal Method Brief Description

WIND For light seeds, usually with wing or parachute structures.

ANIMAL Tough-coated seeds that must be broken down through digestion.

WATER Large, hollow, buoyant seeds.

SELF or Heavy seeds that are propelled a short distance by their parents.
EXPLOSIVE

72
 The COTYLEDONS become the first leaves of
the plant and the first means of the plant to
undergo PHOTOSYNTHESIS. They eventually
decrease in size and fall off when the first “true
leaves” appear from the EPICOTYL of the
seedling.

MOVEMENT IN PLANTS

Even though plants cannot undergo locomotion, they can move individual parts of themselves. The main
responses to stimuli in plants are related to growth. Growth-related mechanisms aid in the plant’s survival
and usually affect the direction of shoot and root growth. The two main environmental stimuli that
affect the growth of a plant are:

1. SUNLIGHT INTENSITY (PHOTOTROPISM)

Plants must always grow towards sunlight to facilitate the process of PHOTOSYNTHESIS in the leaves.
While animals usually use a system of nerves to relay the messages between receptors and effectors, a
plant is more likely to use HORMONES.

73
The hormone that is involved in shoot tip growth is called an AUXIN. Auxins are used to speed up cell
growth in particular sections of the shoot, usually the tip, a section called the MERISTEM. When sunlight
comes into contact with a shoot tip, the auxins spread to the shaded side of the shoot.

NOTE: If the tops of the stems are covered or cut off, the shoot will grow
vertically without bending. This is because auxin interaction only occurs at
the tip of the meristem.

74
 It is said that the roots have a POSITIVE
2. GRAVITY (GRAVITROPISM) response to gravity but the shoots have a
NEGATIVE response to gravity.
Plants always respond to gravity. Shoots will
always grow upward and roots will always grow
downward. No matter what direction or which
end a germinating seed were to be placed, the
radicle will always grow downwards due to the
influence of gravity.

It should be noted, aside from ABSORPTION

OF WATER, one of the main purposes of roots
is for the ANCHORAGE of the plant.

Plant roots and shoots can grow LATERALLY

(sideways) or LONGITUDINALLY (straight
down).

When growth occurs, various zones are taken into

consideration. Cell division occurs near the tip,
which helps increase the number of cells and thus
cause growth. This causes the structure to elongate.

 How else can we determine plant growth?

The number of leaves can be counted. The thickness or
diameter of bark can also be measured. The presence of
flowers and fruits.

 How is animal growth different? Also note that movement for plants is
called GROWTH MOVEMENT,
While growth is irreversible for both, it only occurs in
which is mostly irreversible, while for
meristematic regions of a plant whereas all parts of an animals it is called WHOLE
animal’s body grows. Plants continue growing for their MOVEMENT, which is reversible.
entire life.

NOTE: Invertebrates such as earthworms, squids and jellyfish lack a bony skeleton but are still able to
experience locomotion through propulsion in their fluid-based bodies or a series of muscles. These type
of skeletons are called HYDROSTATIC skeletons.

75
 SECTION B (4/5)
EXCRETION AND RESPONSE

METABOLISM refers to the chemical reactions that occur in the body. Metabolism produces WASTE
products, which can be toxic to the body if allowed to accumulate. EXCRETION is the elimination of
these waste products of metabolism.

NOTE: The removal of faeces or undigested food is considered EGESTION, not EXCRETION. Why?
Feces is not formed due to a metabolic process. It is a mixture
of undigested food, bacteria and dead tissues.

EXAMPLES OF EXCRETORY ORGANS AND PRODUCTS IN HUMANS

Excretory Product Excretory Organ Notes

Carbon dioxide Lungs By-product of respiration, excreted in exhaled air.

Urea Kidneys, skin Produced in the liver after removing nitrogen from proteins
(DEAMINATION) and is excreted in urine and sweat.

Water Kidneys, skin, Main constituent of urine and sweat. Expired air also contains
lungs water vapour.

Calcium oxalate Kidneys A major constitutent of kidney stones. Also found as

crystalline structures in plants.

Bilirubin Liver Formed from the breakdown of red blood cell haemoglobin.
Excreted via the faeces, even though faeces itself is egested.

EXAMPLES OF EXCRETORY ORGANS AND PRODUCTS IN PLANTS

1. The gaseous wastes (CARBON DIOXIDE and WATER VAPOUR) are removed through
STOMATA of leaves.

2. Some waste products collect in the LEAVES and BARK. When the leaves and bark are shed,
the wastes are eliminated.

3. Some waste products are rendered harmless and then stored in the plant body as solid bodies,
such as RESINS and TANNINS.

76
KIDNEY STRUCTURE
They are reddish-brown bean-shaped organs situated towards the back of the abdominal cavity just above
the waist. Inside the kidney, it is divided into an outer area called the CORTEX and an inner layer called
the MEDULLA. The kidney narrows to form the renal pelvis and URETER.

FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEYS

1. These are main excretory organs to

remove unwanted metabolic wastes,
including urea, excess water and mineral
salts from blood, in the form of URINE.
2. The kidneys act as a filter to remove
water, salts, urea, while leaving LARGE
SOLUTES in the blood. This is called
ULTRAFILTRATION.
3. Useful substances (such as GLUCOSE)
are reabsorbed from the nephrons back
into blood. This is called SELECTIVE
REABSORPTION.
4. Regulates WATER and SALT balance
of body fluids.

KIDNEY NEPHRONS

77
 To summarize:
1. Blood enters via RENAL ARTERY.
2. It enters the GLOMERULUS of the BOWMAN’S CAPSULE, which filters small molecules out.
3. The small molecules form a FILTRATE and passes down to the PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED
TUBULE, where only useful substances (e.g. glucose and amino acids) are reabsorbed.
4. The filtrate eventually reaches the COLLECTING DUCT, where only water, mineral salts and urea
remain. These make up URINE. It then passes into the URETER.

ANTI-DIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)

Sensors in the brain detect amount of water in the blood and responses are sent to balance it if there is too
much or too little. Water levels in the body may be affected by environment temperature and exercise.
These responses involve the hormone ADH, also called anti-diuretic hormone. It is secreted by the
PITUITARY gland in the brain. ADH makes the collecting duct’s walls more permeable to water. More
water can then pass back into the blood stream.

Scenario Action of pituitary gland What happens

Hot day Secretes ADH More water reabsorbed into blood. More sweat. Concentrated urine.

Cold day Suppresses ADH Less water reabsorbed into blood. Less sweat. Diluted urine.

78
 THE SKIN AND HOMEOSTASIS

The skin is the largest organ of the human body. It acts as a natural barrier against outside bacteria and
particles. However, the skin plays a crucial role in regulating body temperature. Heat is produced within
the body as a result of metabolic activities. This heat has to be excreted somehow, or our metabolism
would be affected and even death could occur.

HOMEOSTASIS is defined as: THE REGULATION OF THE BODY’S INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT AS

A RESPONSE TO CHANGES IN ITS EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT.

The pigment that gives the skin its colour is

called MELANIN, which is located in the
EPIDERMAL layer of the skin.

Melanin protects the skin from ultraviolet

rays from the Sun. The phenomenon of skin
bleaching, which reduces melanin, thus
increases the risk of skin cancer.

To prevent against sunburns and other harm

to the skin, the application of SUNSCREEN
is often recommended.

The SPF label on sunscreen stands for SUN

PROTECTION FACTOR.

Skin’s Role in Temperature Regulation

Section of Skin Warm Environments Cold Environments

Blood vessels Become larger and move towards Become smaller and move away from
surface (VASODILATION). surface (VASOCONSTRICTION)

Sweat glands and muscles Releases sweat, which cools the Muscles vibrate rapidly (shivering) to
body upon evaporation. produce heat.

Hair Remains flattened. Hair erector muscle contracts. Hair

stands up to trap heat.

79
 HOMEOSTASIS AND REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL

Blood glucose level rises anytime sugary or starchy foods are digested and absorbed into the blood.
However, the glucose is then taken in by the body cells for RESPIRATION, allowing the level to drop.
The excess glucose is converted to GLYCOGEN and stored in the LIVER.

 The hormone that allows this to happen is called INSULIN, which is secreted by the PANCREAS
from a region called the Islets of Langerhans, when blood glucose level is too high.

 When blood glucose level is too low, regions of the pancreas secrete GLUCAGON which
converts GLYCOGEN back into GLUCOSE, to be re-released into the bloodstream.

When insulin cannot be produced, this disease is called

DIABETES TYPE 1. An individual with this would
require insulin shots.

When the body cells have difficulty taking in glucose

from the blood, this is DIABETES TYPE 2. Low-carb
diets and exercise are recommended to manage it.

The diagrams below show homeostasis in two NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms in the body.

80
STIMULUS AND RESPONSE

A DETECTABLE change in the external environment that enacts a response in an organism is called a
STIMULUS. Stimuli could include changes in temperature, pressure against skin, light intensity and
sound level.

Most organisms are adapted to detect these stimuli through cells called RECEPTORS and respond to
them through EFFECTORS, e.g. skin receptors detect heat and pituitary gland (effector) responds by
secreting ADH.

RESPONSE IN INVERTEBRATES

Invertebrates, such as snails, jellyfish and earthworms, tend to respond to the following.

Stimulus Response Reason

Away from light To avoid being seen by predators. Also to avoid drying out.

Away from coldness To maintain their internal body temperatures and avoid freezing.

Towards moisture To avoid desiccation (drying out).

EXPERIMENT

Two petri-dishes are placed side by side with a

drying agent (desiccant) in one and a moist
tissue in the other. An equal number of maggots
are placed in each dish, with a small passage to
cross over. Which petri-dish would have a
greater no. of maggots after an hour?

How could this experiment be altered to test

response to the stimulus of light?

Remove the moist tissue and drying agent and cover only ONE of the petri dishes with black paper.

81
RESPONSE IN HUMANS

Responses in humans occur via two systems: the NERVOUS system and the ENDOCRINE system.

Sections of the nervous system

Section Consists of

Central nervous system (CNS) Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Peripheral nerves and cranial nerves

NEURONE CELLS

There are three types of neurone cells:

Type Function

SENSORY To connect the receptors to the CNS.

MOTOR To connect the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands).

RELAY (intermediate) To connect the sensory and motor neurones in the spinal cord.

Nerves carry information via electrical IMPULSES along the AXON. The branching ends of the nerves
(called dendrites) do not touch. There is a tiny gap called a SYNAPSE between the nerve cells. A
chemical called a NEUROTRANSMITTER is released which connects these synapses and increases
conductivity to make the electrical impulse pass through.

82
REFLEX ARCS (CRANIAL AND SPINAL)

Why are some actions automatic when others are not? If you have ever touched a hot object, you would
notice you would pull away immediately. These are done by reflex arcs. Reflex arcs are:

1. AUTOMATIC 2. INVOLUNTARY 3. A DEFENSE MECHANISM

Usually, sensory information gets sent to the CEREBRUM to be filtered and analyzed and then returned
to the spinal cord and muscles. A reflex arc bypasses the brain process and the receptor sends a rapid
response directly to the spinal cord and THEN to an effector, which is usually a muscle or gland, which
acts immediately.

Cranial reflex arcs operate in the same manner, with the message being sent directly to the brain stem
and with no conscious thought involved. They occur involuntarily, as with all reflexes. An example
would be: BLINKING.

THE BRAIN

83
Section Function

CEREBRUM Memory, emotion, judgment,

senses (e.g. sight, hearing)

84
CEREBELLUM Movement and coordination

MEDULLA (brain Autonomic nervous system

stem) (breathing, heart rate, reflexes,
etc.)

HYPOTHALAMUS Regulation of body temperature.

PITUITARY Regulates release of hormones.

GLAND
RESPONSE IN HUMANS – ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

A hormone is defined as a CHEMICAL SECRETED BY A GLAND THAT TARGETS A CERTAIN

ORGAN AND STIMULATES A SPECIFIC ACTION.

There are two types of glands in the body.

Type Description Examples

ENDOCRINE Transports substances directly into

Sweat glands, tear glands, salivary glands
the blood. Glands have no ducts.

EXOCRINE Glands have ducts. Usually

Adrenal glands, thyroid gland, ovaries
ransports substances to areas outside
of the bloodstream.

NOTE: The pancreas is known as BOTH an exocrine gland and endocrine gland because:
The pancreas secretes hormones such as insulin directly into the bloodstream, but also secretes
enzymes into the small intestine through its duct.

Name of Gland Hormone produced Effect of Hormone

Pituitary GROWTH HORMONE Stimulates growth of tissue and bones.

ADH Regulates water reabsorption in the kidneys.

FSH Forms follicles around egg cells; sperm development

LH Triggers ovulation during menstrual cycle.

Thyroid THYROXINE Regulates metabolic activity.

Adrenal ADRENALINE Heightens awareness during stressful situations, raises

85
 heart + breathing rate, increases rate of digestion.

Pancreas INSULIN Converts glucose to glycogen to be stored in cells.

GLUCAGON Converts glycogen to glucose when blood sugar is

low.

Ovaries OESTROGEN Releases eggs from ovary; secondary sex

characteristics

PROGESTERONE Thickens uterus lining during ovulation

Testes TESTOSTERONE Sperm development; secondary sex characteristics

Diagram showing location of various endocrine glands.

RESPONSES TO BRIGHT AND DIM LIGHT STIMULI

In order to see, an image must be formed on the retina of the eye after light enters the pupil and is focused
by the lens.

Light What Happens in Eye Why

Exposure

Bright The pupil CONSTRICTS. In the iris, radial muscles To limit light entering the eye,
relax and circular muscles contract. which would damage the
retina

86
 Dim The pupil DILATES. In the iris, the radial muscles To allow more light into the
contract and circular muscles relax. eye to form a clear image.

RODS AND CONES

Rods and cones are specialized receptors in the retina, at the back of the eye.

 Rods enable vision in DIM LIGHT and mainly form outlines of images.
 Cones enable vision in BRIGHT LIGHT and mainly form colours.

87
ACCOMMODATION

The process of accommodation in the eye involves changing the shape of the lens in order to focus on
near and distant objects.

OTHER EYE CONDITIONS

Shortsighted vision needs
1. ASTIGMATISM - The deformation of the cornea; requires special lenses. CONCAVE lenses.
2. GLAUCOMA - High fluid pressure near optic nerve causes blurry vision.
Longsighted vision
3. CATARACT - Clouding of the lens in the eye. Can be surgically removed. needs CONVEX lenses.

GLAUCOMA

This is the section that contains AQUEOUS humour. As

a result, fluid buildup occurs and pressure persists
through the VITREOUS humour and OPTIC nerve.

Due to the strain of the nerve, electrical impulses are

interrupted and vision becomes blurry. The condition
also causes considerable discomfort in the patient.
When a person has glaucoma, it means that a drainage
canal at the front of the eye is blocked.

88
THE HUMAN EYE

SECTION FUNCTION

CORNEA Focuses the entrance of light into the eye.

PUPIL The entryway of light into the eye.

IRIS Changes the size of the pupil size to regulate how much light enters the eye.

RETINA Has photoreceptors called rods and cones that detect light and forms
images.

FOVEA Contains the highest concentration of cones. Develops sharpest vision.

LENS Can adjust thickness to focus light on the retina to create sharp images.

CILIARY MUSCLES Contract and relax to adjust thickness of lens.

SUSPENSORY Allows ciliary muscles to pull lens and adjust thickness.

LIGAMENTS

OPTIC NERVE Sends images from the retina to the brain via electrical impulses. No image
or photoreceptors are found here, so it is also called the BLIND SPOT.

CHOROID Prevents internal reflection of light in the eye.

SCLERA Serves as the outermost protective layer; the white of the eye.

VITREOUS Gel-like material that keeps the shape of the eye.

89
HUMOUR

NOTE: Rods detect shapes in dim light. Cones detect colour in bright light.

90
 SECTION B (5/5)
DISEASE AND DRUGS

Disease can be put into FOUR distinct categories:

Category Cause Prevention Method / Examples

Treatment

PATHOGENIC or Disease-causing organisms Cholera, malaria,

INFECTIOUS called pathogens enter the Quarantine. Face masks. dengue fever, typhoid,
body and can be spread in Vaccination and antisera. leptospirosis, tetanus.
various ways. Antibiotics, antiviral
drugs, antifungals.

NUTRITIONAL The absence of a certain Scurvy, rickets, beri-

DEFICIENCY nutrient from the diet, which Having a balanced diet. beri, anaemia,
can have negative effects on Nutritional supplements. kwashiorkor.
the body.

HEREDITARY A disease that is passed on Somatic gene therapy Sickle cell anaemia,
from parent to offspring and genetic screening. cystic fibrosis,
through the genes. haemophilia.

PHYSIOLOGICAL Results from the malfunction Balanced diet. Regular Diabetes, coronary
or LIFESTYLE of an organ, due to poor eating exercise. Reduction of heart disease, obesity.
habits, lack of exercise or substance abuse.
misuse of drugs.

Disease can be divided into COMMUNICABLE and NON-COMMUNICABLE.

- Communicable diseases are infectious, meaning that they can be spread to other individuals,
whether by contact, mediums such as water or air, or through vectors (animals/insects that carry
pathogens). These are PATHOGENIC.
-
- Non-communicable diseases cannot be spread to other individuals through means of infection.
These are classed as nutritional deficiency, physiological and hereditary.

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PATHOGENS AND VECTORS

 A PATHOGEN is a disease-causing microorganism. They are usually one of three types of

organisms: BACTERIA, VIRUS, FUNGUS (and PROTOZOA)

 A VECTOR is an organism that can transmit a pathogen but is mostly unaffected by it.

Vector Pathogen Disease Signs/Symptoms

Anopheles mosquito Protozoa Malaria High fever, headaches, low rbc count.

Aedes aegypti Virus Dengue Joint pain, high fever, headaches.

Housefly Bacteria Cholera Vomiting, diarrhoea, dehydration.

Rat Bacteria Leptospirosis Nervous system failure, red eyes, jaundice.

TYPICAL LIFE CYCLE OF AN ANOPHELES MOSQUITO

Stage Control Method

Egg Draining of stagnant water sources.

Larva Introduction of predators to water sources. Spraying larvacide on water.

Pupa Draining of stagnant water sources. Pesticide-resistant at this stage.

Adult Spraying pesticides. Electrical zappers. Sleep under net to prevent infection.

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93
WHAT ARE SOME IMPACTS OF DISEASES ON SOCIETY?

Factor
Explanation

Economy Impact of State-funded medical care. Reduced labour force. Quarantine can

result in businesses closing down.

Trade relations Reduced income from exports and tourism sectors.

Food Reduced food availability if agricultural sector is affected.

Household income Cost of privatized healthcare and medical bills. Reduced income from

unemployment.

Quality of living Emotional toll of illness, death and being quarantined for lengthy periods.

AIDS/HIV
Question Answer

What do AIDS and HIV HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus

stand for?
AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

Why is there no cure? HIV is very difficult to detect and produce a vaccine for.
Antibiotics useless against viruses. Virus mutates constantly.

How is HIV transmitted? Via the exchange of bodily fluids such as semen, vaginal fluids,
breast milk and blood transfusions.

How can HIV spread be
prevented or reduced?
Use of barrier contraception (condoms). Limiting sexual partners.
Regular HIV blood screening. Education on safe sex for young
people. Anti-HIV drugs for pregnant women.
NOTE: The drug AZT does not cure AIDS, only minimizes its
impact.

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WHAT IS A DRUG?

A drug is defined as a: SUBSTANCE THAT IS EXTERNALLY ADMINISTERED TO THE

BODY, WHICH AFFECTS ITS METABOLISM.

A drug may be beneficial the body or harmful to it depending on how we use it. Usually, problems arise
when people become addicted or dependent on a particular drug. Drugs can be classified in three social
categories:
1. PHARMACEUTICAL drugs (e.g. Penicillin, Quanine)

2. SOCIALLY ACCEPTABLE drugs (e.g. Nicotine, Alcohol)

3. SOCIALLY UNACCEPTABLE or ILLICIT drugs (e.g. Crystal meth, Cocaine, Heroin)

DRUG ABUSE
Drug abuse is the taking of drugs excessively; or not under a doctor’s prescription. Drug abuse can cause
either TOLERANCE, where the person has to keep on taking more and more of the drug to achieve the
same initial effect, or ADDICTION, where a person feels a strong urge to take the drug and experiences
WITHDRAWAL symptoms if they don’t. These symptoms include: nausea, trembling, depression, acute
anxiety attacks).

TYPES OF DRUGS

Type Effect Examples

STIMULANT Increases blood pressure and heart rate Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine.

DEPRESSANT Decreases blood pressure, heart rate and Alcohol, codeine, benzodiazepine
reaction time.

HALLUCINOGEN Used as an escape from reality, amplifies Cannabis, LSD, Ecstasy

emotions

ANALGESIC Used to numb pain, disrupt Morphine, heroin

neurotransmitters.

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EFFECTS OF DRUG ABUSE ON THE INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY

Category Effect

Loss of income from rehab or addiction, especially if breadwinner is involved. Child

Family
neglect and domestic violence. Isolation and stigma.

Loss of income from purchasing drugs and paraphernalia. Loss of employment. Cost of
Finances
rehab.

Long-term physiological and psychological damage to organs. Risk of overdose and

Health
contracting infections from sharing needles.

Reduced labour force. Rise of the black market and crime if drug trade is involved.
Economy
Isolation of certain crime-ridden areas.

EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL

Effect Description

Nervous system Acts as a depressant, reduces reaction time to stimuli.

Circulatory system Lowers heart rate and blood pressure.

Water balance Suppresses the release of ADH, allowing less water to be reabsorbed into

bloodstream. Frequent urination and dehydration. Higher body temp.

Long-term health Impact of addiction and cirrhosis of the liver.

Social issues Loss of income. Domestic abuse and child neglect. Drunk driving.

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MISUSE OF ANTIBIOTICS

Although antibiotics are highly effective drugs against bacterial infections, their misuse has led to severe
problems in the health and medical industry.

• Patients who take antibiotics for too short a duration, for example, if they do not complete the full
course of the prescription, will run the risk of having ANTIBIOTIC-RESISTANT bacteria
develop in their bodies.
• When they take the same antibiotic next time, it will not be effective against the resistant bacteria.
• Some antibiotics also have ADDICTIVE, properties, which can make the user experience
WITHDRAWAL when the course of treatment ends.

NATURAL PREVENTION OF INFECTION

Part Function

Skin Acts as a mechanical barrier to keep microbes out of the body.

Cilia and mucus A mechanical and chemical barrier that filters microbes or traps
them.

Platelets Clots wounds to prevent infection.

Stomach acids (HCl) Denatures enzymes in bacteria that end up there.

White blood cells (leucocytes) Engulfs foreign bodies or produces antibodies to attach to antigens
of microbes, of which effect can be boosted by vaccines.

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IMMUNITY AND IMMUNIZATION

Immunity can be defined as AN ORGANISM’S ABILITY TO RESIST INFECTION. The process of

making an individual resistant to a disease is called IMMUNIZATION. Specialized cells called
MEMORY CELLS are produced when exposed to active immunity to provide long-term immunity.
They are not produced during passive immunity.

Type of Immunity Description

Natural passive Occurs when a child pre-natally receives antibodies from its mother
through the placenta or through breast milk post-natally.

Naturally acquired Occurs when a person is exposed to a pathogen, which stimulates the
active production of antibodies. Can prevent a future infection.

Artificial passive Occurs when an antiserum containing antibodies is administered to

the body in order to treat an infection and kill pathogens in the short
term. Cannot be used as a preventative measure.

Artificially acquired Occurs when a vaccine containing a weakened or deactivated version

active of a pathogen is introduced to the body. This stimulates the
production of antibodies and memory cells to prevent future
infections in the long term. Cannot be used as a treatment.

BACTERIAL STRUCTURE

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 SECTION C
REPRODUCTION, CONTINUITY AND VARIATION

Term Definition or Explanation

DNA A nucleic acid that contain all genetic information. It stands for:
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID

GENE A segment of DNA that carries information to code for a trait, or to

produce a specific protein.

CHROMOSOME A strand of DNA and proteins (histones).

ALLELE Each of an alternative form of a gene, coding for a different aspect of a

trait, e.g. eye colour could have brown or blue alleles.

GENOTYPE The set of genetic code in the DNA, represented as letters, e.g. BB
codes for brown eyes while bb codes for blue eyes.

HOMOZYGOUS When the genotype code has two of the same alleles, e.g. BB, bb

HETEROZYGOUS When the genotype code has two different alleles, e.g. Bb

PHENOTYPE A physical characteristic expressed by the genotype, e.g. if BB codes

for brown eyes, the genotype is ‘BB’ and the phenotype is ‘brown eyes’.

DOMINANT A phenotype is expressed even if only one allele is present.

RECESSIVE Phenotypes are only expressed if both alleles are present, e.g. Brown
(B) is dominant to blue (b). If a person is Bb, their eye colour will be
brown despite carrying a blue gene.

GAMETE A sex cell that is used for fertilization, e.g. sperm and eggs.

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ZYGOTE A fertilized egg, which will divide to form an embryo and fetus.

DIPLOID The chromosome number in a cell that is not a gamete. Represented as

‘2n’. Humans have 46 chromosomes.

HAPLOID The chromosome number in a gamete. Represented as ‘n’. A human

egg or sperm has 23 chromosomes.

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MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

Mitosis and meiosis are both processes that are involved with replication or cell division. Cells usually
reproduce by splitting into two or more cells. There are, however, major differences between these two
processes.

 Mitosis allows cells to divide without  Meiosis only occurs to produce

exchanging DNA and so all daughter
cells are clones. It is used in GROWTH
and ASEXUAL reproduction. Mitosis
occurs in every cell (besides to form
gametes).
gametes. Meiosis allows the genetic
material or DNA to ‘cross-over’ and
create new sets of DNA in the daughter
cells. Since genes undergo independent
assortment in the gametes, there is a
different DNA combination in each
gamete, promoting genetic variation for
sexual reproduction.

CHARACTERISTIC MITOSIS MEIOSIS

Number of cell divisions One Two

Number of daughter cells produced Two Four

DNA of daughter and parent cells Identical (clones). Genetically varied.

Chromosome number Diploid (2n) Haploid (n)

Example of cell formed Any somatic cell. Sperm and eggs.

Why must gametes be haploid?

Gametes halve their chromosome

number because they are produced
during meiosis. When two haploid
gametes fuse during fertilization,
the zygote will become diploid. The
zygote will have a mix of DNA from
the mother and father.

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STAGES OF MITOSIS (excluding interphase)

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 S
EXUAL REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

The purpose of reproduction is to carry on the species of the organisms across generations over time. If
a species cannot reproduce as fast as its population decreases, it will become extinct.

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There are two types of reproduction:

Type Description

ASEXUAL Involves one parent. Typically occurs in bacteria, protozoa, some plants
and animals, e.g. starfish, sea anemones and yeast. The offspring are
identical to their parents because they only obtain one set of chromosomes.

SEXUAL Involves two parents. Two gametes, produced by reproductive organs or

gonads, fuse to form a zygote. Occurs in most animals and plants that have
male and female parts.

During EJACULATION, sperm are

released from the TESTES. Once in
the vagina, they swim towards the
CERVIX and into the UTERUS.

Diagrams of female reproductive system (above) and male reproductive system (below).

CONCEPTION AND PREGNANCY

Most sperm before they get to this uterus. The

During __________________, sperm are
rest swim towards the ____________________,
FALLOPIAN TUBES,
where the ovum will be fertilizedOnce
released from the ___________. in the
to form a Most will die before they get to this point. The
vagina, they swim towards
zygote and then embryo. the ______________ rest continue to swim towards the
and into the ______________.

The embryo undergoes ____________________

IMPLANTATION on the
on the wall
uterus uterus wall it
where where it will receive
will receive materials
materials from
from the mother’s bloodstream for further 10
the mother’s bloodstream for further development
development to the
occur. Whenassumes
the embryo grows 4
to occur. When embryo a more
th
___________________ tubes and to the
______________. Many millions of sperm are

Taking care of the baby after it is born is termed

post-natal care. BREAST MILK is highly
recommended over formula milk due to its high
concentration of ANTIBODIES and that it’s always
at appropriate TEMPERATURES.

Section Description

PLACENTA Contains many blood vessels that collects nutrients, oxygen and antibodies
from the mother to be delivered to the fetus. *

UMBILICAL CORD Allows the transfer of materials from the placenta to the fetus.

AMNIOTIC SAC or Acts as a shock absorber to prevents the fetus from being injured by
AMNION external collisions and trauma.

* Unfortunately, there are some toxins and pathogens that can be transferred across the placenta, such as
nicotine and the rubella virus.

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CONTRACEPTION

Contraception or birth control refers to any method that prevents pregnancy.

Category Examples How they work

BARRIER Condoms Prevents sperm from entering the vagina

Caps/Diaphragms Prevents sperm from entering the uterus

NATURAL Rhythm method Pinpoint the time of ovulation and avoid intercourse
at this time. Least reliable method.

SURGICAL Vasectomy Prevents sperm from reaching the penis

Tubal ligation Prevents eggs from reaching the uterus

HORMONAL Birth control pill Contains sex hormones which suppress ovulation

MECHANICAL Intra-uterine devices A small piece of moulded plastic in the uterus which
(IUD’s) interferes with implantation

Why use contraception?

For individual families, the main purpose of contraception is to avoid financial strain and to increase
quality of life for all individuals. Too many children may lead to cases of neglect. For countries, family
planning is important to maintain a stable population and to avoid economic strain, such as from welfare.

Contraceptive Pills

Progesterone-only female contraceptive pills typically work by:

1. Preventing OVULATION by suppressing the hormone OESTROGEN.

2. Thickening the MUCUS around the CERVIX to prevent sperm from entering.

Male contraceptive pills are not yet on the market but are being researched. Listed below are several ways
in which they could work.

(i) By reducing testosterone levels and sperm count

(ii) by thickening mucus around the sperm duct and preventing release of sperm
(iii) by making the sperm immobile

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OVULATION AND MENSTRUATION

Phase Description

Follicle Phase The follicle develops around the ovum after an increase of FSH.

Ovulation An increase of oestrogen and LH causes ovum to be released from follicle.

Luteal Phase The decayed follicle (corpus luteum) secretes progesterone, which leads to
the thickening of the uterus wall for implantation.

Menstruation If pregnancy does not occur,progesterone level drops and the uterus wall
sheds.

Hormone Function

FSH Stimulates the growth and maturation of the ovarian follicle.

LH Releases the ovum from the follicle; stimulates ovulation.

Oestrogen Helps with thickening uterus lining; stimulate LH secretion.

Progesterone Thickens uterus lining for implantation.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

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 Natural Vegetative Propagation
Vegetative propagation is a form of ASEXUAL reproduction found in plants. It can occur naturally and
usually involves the growth of a new part of a plant, usually a bud or stem, which eventually becomes
separated from the parent plant to form a new individual. In this way, several plants can be produced from
a single parent plant.

Other examples of natural vegetative propagation include:

1. Rhizomes (e.g. ginger and lily of the valley)
2. Tubers (e.g. potato and yam)
3. Bulbs (e.g. onions and garlic)

Artificial Vegetative Propagation

Tissue Culture (micropropagation) Cutting and Grafting

Tissue culture can produce a Grafting is a technique that

very large number of young can result in hybrid breeding
plants simultaneously. and increasing genetic
However, they may be at risk variation and sturdiness.
for spread of disease.

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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS – STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER
Most plants can reproduce sexually AND asexually. But some can only reproduce sexually and others can
only reproduce asexually. To recap, sexual reproduction involves the fusion of special cells called
GAMETES. In flowering plants, sexual reproduction takes place in the flowers, which are the plants'
reproductive organs.
Sepals – Sepals are modified leaves
which enclose and protect the other
parts of the flower in the bud stage. All
the sepals together make up the
CALYX. They also help hold the flower
upright.

Petals – Petals are modified leaves and

are usually brightly coloured in insect-
pollinated flowers. All the petals
combined form the COROLLA. Petals
attract insects as well as act as a landing
platform for them.

FLOWER REPRODUCTIVE PARTS

Section Comprised of Notes

STAMEN Anther Produces pollen grain, containing male gametes.

Filament Holds the anther in place.

PISTIL Stigma Usually allows pollen to stick to it.

Style Holds the stigma in place. Leads to ovary.

Ovary Contains ovules, containing the egg cell.

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POLLINATION

Flowering plants reproduce sexually by producing seeds. The seeds are formed from structures in the
flowers. The male sex cells of plants are inside POLLEN GRAINS. The egg cell is the female sex cell
and is found in the OVULES. When these two sex cells fuse, they form a ZYGOTE. But first:
Plants must transfer the pollen grains from an ANTHER to a STIGMA. This is called
POLLINATION. It usually occurs between flowers on diferent plants of the same species.

 Pollination between two different flowering plants of same species is called CROSS-
POLLINATION.
 Pollination within the same flowering plant is called SELF-POLLINATION.

Cross-pollination takes place in one of two main ways. Some flowers use the wind to transfer pollen –
they are wind-pollinated flowers. Others use insects to transfer the pollen – they are insect-pollinated
flowers.

CROSS-POLLINATION
Continued in-breeding or self-pollination results in the production of offspring that are weaker and less
adaptable to changes in the environment. Cross-pollination is necessary for species survival.

Feature Insect-Pollinated Wind-Pollinated

Petals Large and colourful Small and dull, or absent

Nectary or Scent Present Mostly absent

Stamens or Stigma Usually short stigmas Usually long filaments

Pollen Production A variable amount Much more than insect-pollinated

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 FERTILIZATION AND DOUBLE FERTILIZATION

Following pollination, the following occurs:

1. The pollen grain grows a tube down

through the style to one of the ovules
inside the ovary. The nucleus of the
pollen grain passes down the tube.

2. When it reaches the opening to the

ovule, the pollen grain nucleus passes
into the ovule and fuses with the egg
cell nucleus in the ovule. This is called
FERTILIZATION.

An EMBRYO is formed.

3. The fertilized ovule develops into a

SEED.

4. The ovary becomes a FRUIT and these

may contain several seeds or just one.

NOTE: It is called double fertilization because another pollen grain nucleus fuses with another
nucleus (called the ENDOSPERM nucleus) to form a food storage for the seed called the
endosperm.

The endosperm mainly contains LIPIDS and PROTEINS (and some sugars).

Changes that occur in the flower after fertilization

Before Fertilization After Fertilization

Ovary Fruit

Ovary wall Pericarp

Ovule Seed

Zygote Embryo

Endosperm nucleus Endosperm

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MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE

Characteristics, such as the colour of our eyes or skin, height and blood type are passed on to us
by our parents. They are referred to as GENETIC characteristics. It was only until the 19th century
an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel carried out breeding experiments with garden peas to
give an explanation of the mechanism of heredity. Monohybrid inheritance refers to the study
of the passing down of only one genetic characteristic.

For Mendel's experiments, he carefully selected several varieties of garden peas that differed in
easily observable characteristics, such as height, flower colour and seed colour.

The offspring resulted in the first filial

generation or F1 generation. These F1 plants
then self-pollinated and produced to the F2
generation. The results of his experiment is
shown in the diagram.

In one of his experiments, Mendel crossed

tall plants with dwarf plants. He used pure-
bred varieties, which are plants that are self-
fertilized (asexually), so they produce
identical offspring.

He cross-pollinated the tall plants with

pollen from the dwarf plants and vice versa.

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 In his experiments, Mendel noticed that his F1 plants always resulted in the same tall height,
while the other "dwarf" trait seemed to disappear or "recede". Mendel then noticed the dwarf
characteristic reappeared in the F2 generation only. Mendel called the trait that appeared
unchanged in the F1 hybrid a DOMINANT trait and the other a RECESSIVE trait.

Thus, it can be said that:

 Dominant traits are always expressed over recessive traits.
 Recessive traits are ONLY expressed if no DOMINANT allele is present.
CODOMINANCE AND INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

Type Description Example

CODOMINANCE Two alleles are equally dominant and Red and white camellia flowers
thus, produces a combined produce red-and-white spotted.
phenotype.

INCOMPLETE Where one allele is not completely Red and white snapdragons
DOMINANCE expressed in the phenotype. produce pink.

GENETIC TEST CROSSES AND PUNNETT SQUARES

Diploid organisms will have two copies of
each gene in each cell. These copies are
called ALLELES. The alleles may be the
same or they may be different.
Usually letters are used to represent alleles:
capital letters for dominant alleles and
common letters for recessive alleles. For
example, the allele for tallness in pea plants
may be designated "T" while the allele for
dwarfness may be designated "t".

 If both alleles are the same (e.g. TT), the organism is said to be HOMOZYGOUS
 If they are different (e.g. Tt), the organism is said to be HETEROZYGOUS.

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SEX DETERMINATION AND SEX-LINKED (X-LINKED) DISEASES

 Among the 46 chromosomes that humans have, one pair typically codes for a person’s
sex or gender. A male’s sex genotype is XY while a female’s is XX.

 The egg cell always has an X chromosomes, while the sperm cell can carry either an X or
a Y chromosome.

Some diseases, such as HAEMOPHILIA and genetic COLOUR BLINDNESS. are more
prevalent in males than in females. This is because these diseases only are carried in the X
chromosome. Since males only have one X chromosome, they have a higher chance of getting the
disease from childbirth. For instance, if the a normal healthy gene is X H and the haemophilia gene
is Xh, the Punnett square below will show how a male has a higher chance of getting the disease.

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11
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SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA

Sickle cell anaemia is a condition where the red

blood cells are crescent-shaped due to abnormal
haemoglobin. As a result, they cannot efficiently
absorb OXYGEN, leading to fatigue and
fainting. Because of their shape, they also tend
to form blood clots and limit blood flow. This
can lead to death.

A person with the disease has two recessive

alleles. The alleles for sickle cell are given as:

1. HbA is the healthy allele.

2. HbS is the sickle cell allele.

Complete the Punnett square to the right show

how a mother and father who don’t have sickle
cell anaemia can produce a child who has.

NOTE: One advantage of carrying a sickle cell

gene is that it provides resistance to
MALARIA since the pathogen cannot properly
inhabit sickle red blood cells.

MULTIPLE ALLELES IN HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS

In a population, there may be more than two alleles for a given trait. If a gene exists in more than two
alleles, it is said to have multiple alleles. The occurrence of blood groups is an example of multiple
alleles. There are four blood groups in human populations: A, B, AB and O.

The alleles for A group, B group and O group may be designated IA, IB and IO respectively.

o IA and IB are dominant over IO

o IA and IB are co-dominant, therefore individuals with these two alleles will have an AB blood
group.

o The only way blood type O can be obtained is if both genes are IO

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EXAMPLE QUESTION:
In the diagrams below, show how a father of
blood type B and a mother of blood type A
can produce a child of blood type O.

VARIATION
Variation can also seen within organisms of the same species. A number of factors contribute to variation
such as genetic exchange during sexual reproduction, sunlight exposure, diet, water, fertilizer.

Variation is important to species to:

1. Resist diseases or pests (e.g. the Gros Michel banana was nearly wiped out by a fungus)
2. Prevent overcompetition for resources
3. Encourage species survival if there is a sudden environmental change

Type Description Example

GENETIC Mostly occurs through sexual
VARIATION reproduction. Because there are two
sets of DNA that cross-over and
recombine during meiosis and fuse
through fertilization, new genotypes
and phenotypes are produced in the
offspring.*
A brother and sister will both be
genetically different because they
would have different random
assortments of genes from their
mother and father.

ENVIRONMENTA Occurs through factors external to Two plants of similar genes can
L VARIATION genetics, such as lifestyle, diet and still grow at different rates if
surrounding environment. planted in two different soils and
given different amounts of water.

*The only way genetic variation can occur through asexual reproduction is via MUTATIONS.

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Variation of characteristics can also occur in two other categories.

Type Description Examples

CONTINUOUS Occurs due to the influence of Height, body mass, skin colour
many alleles, can have possibilities
across a spectrum.

DISCONTINUOUS Occurs due to one or a few alleles Eye colour, ability to roll tongue,
typically. Only a distinct few presence of widow’s peak, blood
possibilities of phenotype. type

NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

Recall the case of the peppered moth, where only the moths of certain colours survived based on their
environment (black moths survived in the soot, white moths survived on light-coloured lichen on trees).
This was the process of natural selection, where organisms survived based on their ability to ADAPT
TO THEIR SURROUNDINGS.

Artificial selection involves the selective breeding of organisms in order to preserve or attain favourable
genotypes or traits. Organisms are selected to mate based on desirable traits, e.g. breeding cows to
produce more milk, chickens to produce larger eggs, or crops to resist disease and have higher yields.

The Belgian Blue Cow is a good example. The

cattle with increased muscle mass have a
recessive gene, caused by a mutation, which
increases their muscle mass more than normal.
These cattle with these recessive genes are then
selected to breed to produce offspring that
contain the gene. It is different from genetic
engineering, since the gene was not directly
inserted into the cow.

How is artificial selection different from natural selection?

Artificial selection is done in a CONTROLLED environment and is a FASTER process than natural
selection. However, the trait the organism is bred for may not always be advantageous to the organism
itself. In natural selection, the trait is always BENEFICIAL since it allows survival in the wild.

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MUTATION
Mutations occur when the chromosomal set of an organism changes unexpectedly, or there is some
alteration to a genotype. It is VERY important to remember that mutations are RANDOM, though
substances called MUTAGENS (e.g. radioactive exposure) can increase the risk of mutations.

Examples of common mutations in humans include:

Condition Description

Albinism Occurs when a recessive mutant allele prevents the production of

MELANIN, causing very pale skin and eyes.

Down’s Syndrome Occurs when one of the chromosomes divides one extra time, forming a
total of 47.

Sickle Cell Anaemia Recessive mutation that produces abnormal haemoglobin and thus changes
the shape of red blood cells. O2 is thus not able to be transported properly.

MUTATION AND SPECIATION

A single mutation in an individual cannot lead

to a new species arising. However, if a mutation
occurs throughout a population and that
mutation is beneficial to the species and allows
it to better survive in its environment, those
mutated species will be able to reproduce and
form a new species.

An interesting example of mutation leading to

the formation of a new species is the snake. A
long time ago, snakes had legs.

A mutation would’ve caused some snakes to

have small legs or have no legs. These snakes
would have had greater mobility in underground
regions and were better able to escape predators,
thus would have survived over their legged
counterparts.

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12
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GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering involves THE ALTERATION OF THE ORGANISM’S GENOME OR THE

EXTRACTION AND TRANSFER OF A GENE FROM ONE ORGANISM INTO ANOTHER.

It is a controversial process that has caused many ethical debates, mainly due to religious consequences or
the wide possibility of situations that can occur due to mishaps. However, genetic engineering has
ensured great steps in biotechnology, medicine and agriculture.

Field Examples

Medicine and The production of insulin using recombined DNA in E. coli bacteria.
Biotechnology
Gene therapy for inherited disorders. Research of stem cell techniques.

Agriculture The production of Golden Rice (which produces beta-carotene and Vitamin
A). The production of crops that produce their own pesticides and crops that
grow faster and resist harsh weather conditions. The “Flavr-Savr” tomato,
which had a longer shelf-life than regular tomatoes.

There are, however, numerous disadvantages to genetic engineering. These include:

Factor Explanation

Social & Ethical Changing the genome of an organism can be seen as ‘playing God’. The
chances of producing ‘designer babies’. The impact of ‘cloning humans’. The
risk of biological weapons.

Physiological It is possible for ALLERGENS can be transferred from one food crop to
another through genetic engineering. Another concern is that pregnant women
eating GMO products may endanger their offspring.

The release of a GMO species would have the possibility of causing an

Environmental
ECOLOGICAL IMBALANCE. The main concern is that crops can spread
their genes to wild plants through pollination.

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INSULIN PRODUCTION WITH RECOMBINANT DNA

DNA is isolated or ‘cut’ from

the human pancreatic cell and
an E. coli bacteria cell.

The human DNA is then fused

with the bacteria plasmid
DNA using an enzyme.

The DNA is reinserted into the

bacteria cell, which can now
produce insulin. The bacteria
multiply and insulin is
harnessed in a fermenter.

Differentiating Artificial Selection and Genetic Engineering

Factor Artificial Selection Genetic Engineering

Method Done by selecting two animals to DNA is transferred from one organism to
breed to pass on their genes that code another using plasmids and enzymes.
for their desirable traits.

Trait selection Expressions for traits are selected but Individual genes are transferred from one
usually not individual alleles. organism to another. Very specific.

Timespan May take a few generations to achieve Achieves results as soon as the process is
optimum results. done. Much faster.

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