2.
Neural Stimuli – nervous system
ENDOCRINESYS
TEM
Principles of Chemical Communication
Chemical messengers – allow cells to communicate
with
each other
Secretion – controlled release of chemicals from a
cell
Classes of Chemical Messengers
1. Autocrine – stimulates the cell that originally
secreted it; WBCs during an infection
2. Paracrine – act locally on nearby cells; WBCs
during allergic reactions
3. Neurotransmitter – activate an adjacent cell
4. Endocrine – secreted into the bloodstream by
certain glands and cells
Functions of the Endocrine System (MC3
I2WHUT)
1. Metabolism.
2. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients.
3. Control of reproductive functions.
4. Control of food intake and digestion.
5. Ion regulation.
6. Immune system regulation.
7. Water balance.
8. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation.
9. Uterine contraction and milk release.
10. Tissue development.
Characteristics of the Endocrine System
Endocrine System – composed of endocrine glands
+
endocrine specialized cells
Hormones – chemical messenger that is secreted into
the
blood
Target tissues – effectors; specific site
Endocrine – Greek word; endo (within) + krino
(secrete)
Exocrine glands – have ducts that carry their
secretions
to the outside of the body
Endocrinology – study of the endocrine system
Hormones
§ Greek word; hormone (to set into motion)
Chemical Nature of Hormones
1. Lipid-Soluble
2. Water-Soluble
Control of Hormone Secretion
Stimulation/Inhibition of Hormone Release
1. Humoral Stimuli – blood levels of chemicals
3. Hormonal Stimuli - hormones
Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood
A. Negative feedback
v Blood conc. of hormone declines
v More hormone is secreted
v If max. set point is exceeded
v Hormone production is halted
B. Positive feedback
v Tropic hormones stimulate the release
of other hormones
Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of Action
Receptors – where hormones exert action by binding
to
proteins
Receptor site – the portion of each receptor molecule
where a hormone binds
Specificity – tendency of hormones to bind to one
type
of receptor
Target tissue – the responding tissue based on the
hormone released
Classes of Receptors
1. LSH bind to nuclear receptors.
v Interaction with cell DNA to regulate
transcription.
2. WSH bind to membrane bound receptors.
v Hormone receptor complex initiates a
response inside the cell (G proteins,
cAMP, protein kinase).
Endocrine Glands and their Hormones
Pituitary and Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland/Hypophysis
§ A small gland about the size of a pea
§ Controls the functions of many other glands
§ Secrets hormones that influence growth, kidney
function, birth, milk prod.
Hypothalamus
§ An important ANS and endocrine control center
of the brain
§ Controls the PG by hormonal control and direct
innervation
Infundibulum – a stalk that connects the pituitary
gland
and the hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary – made up of epithelial cells
derived
from embryonic oral cavity
Posterior pituitary – an extension of the brain;
composed of nerve cells
Hormonal Control of A. Pituitary
Hypothalamic-pituitary portal system – capillary
beds
and veins that transport the releasing and inhibiting
hormones
ANTERIORPITUITAR
Y
1. Growth hormone (GH)
§ Affects body growth by stimulating protein
synthesis by increasing gene expression
§ Breakdown of lipids
§ Release of fatty acids from cells
§ Increases blood glucose levels
Pituitary dwarf – deficiency in GH although
normally proportioned
Gigantism – excess GH; exaggerated bone
growth occurs
Acromegaly – abnormally large facial features &
hands
Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)
2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
§ Promotes synthesis and secretion of thyroid
hormone
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
§ Increases secretion of glucocorticoid hormones
§ Increases skin pigmentation
4. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
§ Increases melanin prod. in melanocytes
5. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
§ Promotes ovulation and progesterone
production on ovary
Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH)
§ Promotes testosterone synthesis and support for
sperm cell prod. in testis
6. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
§ Promotes follicle maturation and estrogen
secretion in ovary
§ Promotes sperm cell prod. in testis
7. Prolactin
§ Promote development of breast during
pregnancy
§ Stimulates milk prod. and prolongs
progesterone secretion
§ Increases sensitivity to LH in males
PITUITARYGLAN
D Ø Prone to kidney stone formation
1. Antidiuretic hormone
§ Conserves water
§ Constricts blood vessels
§ Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH (SIADH)
§ Diabetes Inspidus – large prod. of dilute urine
2. Oxytocin
§ Swift birth
§ Increases uterine contractions
§ Increases milk letdown
THYROIDGLAND
1. Calcitonin
§ Decreases rate of bone breakdown
§ Prevents large increase in blood Ca2+ levels
2. Thyroid hormones
§ Increases metabolic rates
§ Essential for normal process of growth
Thyroxine / Tetraiodothyronine - contains four
iodine atoms
Triiodothyronine – contains three iodine atoms
Isthmus – narrow band that connects the two
lobes of the thyroid gland
Thyroid follicles – where thyroid hormones are
synthesized and stored
Goiter – excess TSH; low in iodine diet
Hypothyroidism – lack of thyroid hormones
Cretinism – congenital absence of thyroxine in
infants
Myxedema – accumulation of fluid and other
molecules in subcutaneous tissue in adults
Hyperthyroidism – elevated rate of thyroid
hormone secretion
Graves disease – hyperthyroidism that results
when the immune system produces abnormal
proteins
Exophthalmia – bulging of the eyes
PARATHYROIDGLAN
D
1. Parathyroid hormone
§ Increase Ca+ levels in the blood
§ Increases rate of bone breakdown by osteoclasts
§ Increases vit. D synthesis (essential for
maintenance of normal blood calcium levels)
Hyperparathyroidism (Hypercalcemia) –
abnormally high rate of PTH secretion
Ø Tumor
Ø Muscle weakness
Ø Soft, easily deformed bones
Hypoparathyroidism (Hypocalcemia) –
abnormally low rate of PTH; surgery
Ø Surgery
Ø Frequent muscle cramps or tetanus
Ø Respiratory arrest
Ø CHVOSTEK’s sign & TROSSEAU sign
ADRENALMEDULL
A § Biological clock (day & night cycle)
1. Epinephrine (Adrenalin) & Norepinephrine
§ Fight-or-flight hormones
§ Increases cardiac output
§ Increases blood flow to skeletal muscles & heart
§ Increases release of glucose and fatty acids into
blood
§ Prepares body for physical activity
ADRENALCORT
EX
1. Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoids)
§ Regulates water balance
§ Increases rate of Na transport into body
§ Increase rate of K excretion
Renin – protein molecule that acts as an enzyme
Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System
(RAAS) – helps the body to address decreasing
blood volume
2. Cortisol (Glucocorticoids)
§ Increase fat & protein breakdown
§ Increase glucose synthesis from amino acids
§ Increase blood nutrient levels
§ Inhibit inflammation & immune response
§ Helps the body in stressful situations by
providing energy sources
Cortisone – artificial cortisol; anti-inflammatory
effect
3. Androgens
§ Male sex hormone; stimulates the dev’t of male
characteristics
§ Increases female sex drive
Addison’s disease – hyposecretion of adrenal
cortex hormones
Cushing’s disease – tumor in middle cortex
Hyperaldosteronism – hyperactivity of outer
cortex
Hirsutism – masculinization (inner cortex)
THYMUS
1. Thymosin
§ Promotes immune system development and
function
§ Helps the dev’t of certain WBC (T-cells)
PINEALGLAND
1. Melatonin
§ Inhibits secretion of gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (thus inhibits reproduction)
PANCREAS
1. Insulin
§ Secreted by beta cells
§ Increases uptake and use of glucose and amino
acids
§ Released in response to elevated blood glucose
level & parasympathetic stimulation
2. Glucagon
§ Secreted by alpha cells
§ Increases breakdown of glycogen and release of
glucose into the circulatory system
§ Released in response to low blood glucose level
Glycogen – stored glucose in muscles & liver
Acidosis – reduced pH of body fluids
Satiety center – area of the hypothalamus that
controls apetite
Diabetes mellitus – much urine + sweetened
v Type 1 – occurs when too little insulin is
secreted from pancreas
v Type 2 – caused by insufficient no. of
insulin receptors
Hyperglycemia – high blood glucose levels
Polyphagia – increased appetite/eating
Polyuria – increased eating
Polydipsia – excessive thirst
TESTES
1. Testosterone
§ Aids in sperm cell prod.
§ Maintenance of functional reproductive organs,
secondary sexual characteristics, sexual behavior
OVARIES
1. Estrogen & Progesterone
§ Aid in uterine and mammary gland
development and function, external genitalia
structure, secondary sexual characteristics,
sexual behavior, menstrual cycle
2. Prostaglandins
§ Mediate inflammatory responses
§ Increase uterine contractions and ovulations
OTHERHORMONE
S
1. Erythropoietin
§ Acts on bone marrow to increase the prod. of
RBCs
2. Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)
Stimulated prod. of estrogen & progesterone