Endocrine system – includes the endocrine
glands and their hormones; its function is to
secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Hormone – a chemical messenger, which
targets a specific group of cells, in order to
cause that group of cells do some activity or
stop doing an activity.
Functions of the endocrine system:
1. Metabolism – the sum of the chemical
changes that occur in tissues.
2. Control of food intake and digestion –
regulated the level of satiety (fullness) and
the breakdown of food into individual
nutrients.
3. Tissue development – influences the
development of tissues such as those of the
nervous system.
4. Ion regulation – regulates the solute
concentration of the blood.
5. Water balance – its regulation is through
controlling the solutes in the blood.
6. Heart and BP regulation – helps regulate
HR and BP and helps prepare the body for
physical activity.
7. Control of blood glucose and other
nutrients – regulates the level of blood
glucose and other nutrients in the body.
8. Control of reproductive functions –
controls the development and functions of
the reproductive system in male and female.
9. Uterine contraction and milk release –
regulates urine contractions during delivery
and stimulates milk release from the
breasts in lactating females.
10. Immune system regulation – helps
control the production and functions of
immune cells.
Categories of chemical messengers:
a. Autocrine chemical messengers –
stimulate the cell that originally secreted it.
Example: Those that are secreted by white
blood cells during an infection; they can
stimulate their own replication, so that the
total number of WBC increases rapidly.
2. Paracrine chemical messengers – are
secreted by one cell type into the
extracellular fluid and affect surrounding
cells of a different type.
Example: Histamine – stimulates
vasodilation in nearby blood vessels;
released by certain WBC during allergic
reactions.
3. Neurotransmitter – secreted by neurons
that activate an adjacent cell, whether it is
another neuron, a muscle cell, or a glandular
cell; secreted into a synaptic cleft rather
than into the bloodstream.
* Neurotransmitter is a paracrine
messenger, but for the purposes, it is most
appropriate to consider them as a separate
category.
4. Endocrine chemical messengers –
secreted into the bloodstream by certain
glands and cells, which together constitute
the endocrine system; affect cells that are
distant from their source.
Neurotransmitter and neuromodulators –
secreted by nerve cells.
* Example: nervous system function
Pheromones – secreted into environment
and modify behavior and physiology of other
individual in same species.
* Example: Women and menstrual cycles
Hormones and neurohormones – secreted
into blood and bind to receptor sites.
* Example: Epinephrine and insulin
Exocrine glands – release their secretions
into ducts or tubes.
Liver – the bile released into the gallbladder,
then through a duct into the small intestine.
Pancreas – releases pancreatic juice into
the small intestine via a duct.
Endocrine glands – are called ductless
glands; release hormones directly into the
bloodstream.
Blood – transports hormones throughout
the body.
* Each hormone acts on only a certain kind
of tissue called target tissue.
Target cells or tissues – specific cells
affected by a hormone.
Endocrine – circulated by blood to target
cells.
Paracrine – hormones that affect
neighboring cells.
Autocrine – hormones that act on the cells
that secrete tm.
Components of hormones:
1. Receptor site – location on a cell where
hormone binds (lock).
2. Target tissues – group of cells that
respond to specific hormones.
3. Specificity – specific hormones bind to
specific receptor sites.
Types of hormones:
1. Water soluble – includes proteins,
peptides, and amino acids; most common.
* Example: growth hormone, antidiuretic,
prolactin
2. Lipid hormones – includes steroids and
eicosanoids.
* Example: LH, FSH, and androgens
Human endocrine glands:
1. Pituitary – is a round and about the size
of a pea (approximately 1 cm in diameter);
located behind the bridge of the nose at the
base of the brain; secretes 9 different
hormones, which affect many different
areas of the body, including:
a. Growth
b. Blood pressure
c. Regulation of pregnancy
d. Breast milk production
e. Sex organ functions in both men and
women
f. Thyroid gland function
g. Metabolism
h. Water regulation in the body (kidneys)
i. Temperature regulation
Growth hormone (GH) – increase body size
during childhood and adolescence; to
maintain body size during adulthood.
Gigantism in childhood and acromegaly in
adults (bones of face, hands, and feet
enlarge) – oversection of growth hormone.
Dwarfism in childhood – undersection of
growth hormone.
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) –
stimulate the thyroid to produce thyroxin.
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) –
regulate puberty, development, and
reproductive processes.
Luteinizing hormone (LH) – stimulates the
production of estrogen and testosterone.
2. Thyroid – located in the neck; releases
thyroxin.
Thyroxin – regulate the rates of metabolism
in the body; essential for normal physical
and metal development.
Nervousness and weight loss – oversection
of thyroxin.
Cretinism (mental retardation, small size) in
children – undersection of thyroxin.
Iodine deficiency in diet – results in goiter
(enlargement of thyroid gland.
Abnormalities of thyroid gland:
a. Hypothyroidism – decreased metabolism;
weight gain, reduced appetite, fatigue; low
temperature and pulse; dry, cold skin;
myxedema in adults; cretinism in infants.
b. Hyperthyroidism – increased metabolism;
weight loss, increased appetite,
nervousness; higher temperature and pulse;
warm. Flushed skin; Graves’ disease (leads
to goiter).
3. Parathyroid – control metabolism of
calcium; necessary for normal nerve and
muscle function, blood clotting, healthy
bones and teeth; located in back of thyroid
gland (in neck); its released hormone is
parathormone.
Nerve disorders, brittle bones, and clotting
problems – undersection of parathormone.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) – regulates
blood Ca2+ levels (more than calcitonin).
* If Ca2+ is low then osteoclasts break
down bone matrix and less Ca2+ is lost in
urine.
* If Ca2+ is high then osteoclasts don’t
break down bone matrix and more Ca2+ is
lost in urine.
4. Adrenal – located at the top of each
kidney; its released hormones are cortisone
and adrenaline.
Cortisone – regulate carbohydrate, protein,
and fat metabolism; promotes conversion
of fats and proteins to glucose.
Adrenaline – raise blood sugar levels and
increases heartbeat and breathing rates.
2 regions:
a. Adrenal medulla – inner portion
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine
Target tissues: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat
cells
Function: released as part of fight or flight
b. Adrenal cortex – outer portion
Aldosterone – types of mineralocorticoids.
Target tissue: kidney
Function: causes Na+ and H2O to be
retained and K+ to be secreted, indirectly
involved with blood pressure and blood
volume.
5. Pancreas (Islets of Langherhans)
Islet of Langerhans – located in the
pancreas; its secreted hormones are insulin
and glucagon,
Insulin – stimulates glucose uptake by cells.
Glucagon – promotes conversion of
glycogen (animal-based carbohydrate) to
glucose.
Low blood sugar – oversection of insulin.
High blood sugar – undersection of insulin;
this can lead to a condition known as
diabetes.
Type 1 diabetes – usually found in children
and young adults; the body doesn’t make
enough insulin.
Symptoms: frequent urination, unusual
thirst, extreme hunger, unusual weight loss,
extreme fatigue and irritability.
Type 2 diabetes – either the body doesn’t
produce enough insulin, or the cells ignore it.
* If you consume too much sugar over a
long period of time, your body has to release
large amounts of insulin; this can result in
your cells building up a tolerance for insulin,
which means they won’t be affected by it.
Symptoms: any of the type 1 symptoms,
frequent infection, blurred vision,
cuts/bruises that are slow healing,
tingling/numbness in the hands/feet,
recurring skin, gum, or bladder infection.
Endocrine system control – regulated by
feedback mechanisms.
2 types of feedback mechanisms:
1. Positive feedback – control events that
can be out of control and do not require
continuous adjustment; rarely used to
maintain homeostasis.
* Example of positive feedback found in
childbirth.
Oxytocin – stimulates and enhances labor
contractions.
* As labor continues, more oxytocin is
produced. Intensified contractions until the
baby is outside birth canal. Oxytocin
production stops and labor contractions
stop.
Major actions of oxytocin:
a. Stimulates contraction of smooth muscle
cells of the uterus during childbirth.
b. Stimulates contraction of myoepithelial
cells in the breast to cause milk letdown.
2. Negative feedback – often used to
maintain homeostasis; act like a thermostat
in a home; as the temperature cools, the
thermostat detects the change and trigger
the furnace to turn on and warm the house,
and once the temperature reaches its
thermostat setting, the furnace turns off.
* Example: Blood sugar increases after a
meal, so the pancreas secretes insulin,
which tells the body’s cells to take in
glucose. Once blood sugar levels reach
normal, the pancreas stops making the
insulin.
Homeostasis – maintained by two
hormones who have antagonistic effects.
* Each hormone does the opposite of the
other.
* Example: If the blood pressure drops too
low, the pituitary releases ADH, which
causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water.
If the blood pressure increases too much,
then the heart will release ANH, which will
cause the kidneys to reabsorb less water.
6. Testes and ovaries
Testosterone – male’s main sex hormone,
which is responsible for the growth and
development of the male reproductive
structures, muscle enlargement, the growth
of body hair, voice changes, and the male
sexual drive; secreted by the testes.
Estrogen and progesterone – female’s two
main classes of sex hormones; contribute
to the development and function of the
female reproductive structures and other
female sexual characteristics.
2 characteristics:
a. Enlargement of the breast
b. Distribution of the adipose tissue, which
influences the shape of the hips, breasts,
and thighs.
Female menstrual cycle – controlled by the
cyclical release of estrogen and
progesterone from the ovaries.
LH and FSH – stimulate the secretion of
hormones from the ovaries and testes.
* Releasing hormones from the
hypothalamus controls the rate of LH and
FSH secretion in males and females. In turn,
this LH and FSH control the secretion of
hormones from the ovaries and testes.
Lymphatic system – transport clean fluids
back to the blood; drains excess fluids from
tissues; removes “debris” from cells of body;
transports fats from the digestive system.
Lymph – excess tissue fluid carried by
lymphatic system.
* Lymphatic system is a passive system:
one way system toward the heart; no pump;
lymph moves toward the heart; milking
action of skeletal muscle; rhythmic
contraction of smooth muscle in vessel
walls; gravity effects movement.
Lymph capillaries – fluid leaks through mini-
valves into this.
* Higher pressure on the inside closes mini-
valves.
Lymphatic vessels – collect lymph from
lymph capillaries; delivers lymph to lymph
nodes; returns fluid to circulatory veins near
the heart (right lymphatic duct and thoracic
duct).
Lymph nodes – filter lymph before it is
returned to the blood.
Defense cells in nodes:
1. Medulla – houses macrophages, which
engulf and destroy foreign substances.
2. Cortex – nurtures lymphocytes, which
provide immune response to antigens
(cortex).
Flow of lymph through nodes:
 Lymph enters the convex side
through afferent lymphatic vessels.
 Lymph flows through a number of
sinuses inside the node.
 Lymph exits through efferent
lymphatic vessels.
 Fewer efferent than afferent vessels
cause flow to be slowed.
Several other organs contribute to lymphatic
function:
1. Spleen – filters blood; destroys worn out
blood cells; forms blood cells in the fetus;
acts as a blood reservoir.
2. Thymus – functions at peak levels only
during childhood; produces hormones (like
thymosin) to program lymphocytes.
3. Tonsils – small masses of lymphoid
tissue around the pharynx; trap and remove
bacteria and other foreign materials.
Tonsillitis – caused by congestion with
bacteria.
4. Peyer’s patches – tonsils of the intestine;
found in the walls of the small intestine;
capture and destroy bacteria in the intestine.
Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue
(MALT) – includes Peyer’s patches, tonsils,
other small accumulations of lymphoid
tissue; acts as a sentinel to protect
respiratory and digestive tracts.
Immunity – ability to resist damage from
foreign substances (microbes, toxins, and
cancer cells).
Types of immunity:
1. Innate – present at birth; defense against
any pathogen; accomplished by physical
barriers, chemical mediators, cells,
inflammatory response.
Physical barriers – first line of defense.
Skin and mucous membranes to act as
barriers.
Tears, saliva, and urine – wash away
pathogens.
Chemical mediators – kill microbes and
prevent their entry into cells.
Lysozyme – found in tears and saliva to kill
bacteria.
Mucous membranes – prevent entry of
microbes.
Histamine – promote inflammation by
causing vasodilation.
Interferons – proteins that protect against
viral infections by stimulating surrounding
cells to produce antiviral proteins.
Cells:
a. White blood cells – produce in red bone
marrow and lymphatic tissue that fight
foreign substances.
b. Phagocytic cells – ingest and destroy
foreign substances (neutrophils and
macrophages).
Neutrophils – first to respond to infection,
but die quickly.
Macrophages – monocytes; leave blood and
enter tissues; can ingest more than
neutrophils; protect lymph in lymph nodes
and blood in spleen and liver; given specific
name for certain areas of body (Kupffer
cells in liver).
Basophils – made in red bone marrow; leave
blood and enter infected tissues; can
release histamine.
Mast cells – made in red bone marrow;
found in skin, lungs, gastrointestinal tract,
urogenital tract; can release leukotrienes.
Eosinophils – produces in red bone marrow;
release chemicals to reduce inflammation.
Natural killer cells – type of lymphocyte;
produced in red bone marrow, recognize
classes of cells such as tumor cells or virus
infected cells; release chemicals to lysis
cells.
Inflammatory response – involves chemical
and cells due to injury; signaled by presence
of foreign substance; stimulates release of
chemical mediators.
2. Adaptive – defense that involves specific
recognition to a specific antigen; acquired
after birth; reacts when innate defenses
don’t work; slower than innate immunity;
has memory; uses lymphocytes (B and T
cells).
2 types:
a. Antibody-mediated – effective against
antigens in body fluids (blood and lymph);
effective against bacteria, viruses, and
toxins; uses B cells to produce antibodies.
Antibody’s structure – letter Y shape
Variable region – V of Y; bind to epitopes of
antigen using antigen-binding site.
Constant region – stem of Y; each class of
immunoglobulin has same structure.
Antigen-binding site – site on antibody
where antigen bids.
Valence – number of antigen-binding sites
on antibody.  Antibody – proteins that the body
produces in response to antigen.
5 immunoglobulins used to destroy
antigens: Types of adaptive immunity:
1. IgG 1. Naturally acquired immunity
2. IgM a. Active – natural exposure to antigens
causes production of antibodies; can be
3. IgA
lifelong immunity.
4. IgE
Example: Mononucleosis
5. IgD
b. Passive – transfer of antibodies from
Primary response – first exposure of B cell mother to child.
to antigen.
Example: Breastmilk and placenta
B cell – undergoes division and forms
2. Artificially acquired immunity
plasma cell and memory cells.
a. Active – injection of antigens using
Plasma cells – produce antibodies; 3-14
vaccines, which cause the production of
days to be effective against antigen; person
antibodies.
develop disease symptoms.
Vaccine or immunization – process of
Secondary response
introducing killed, live, or inactivated
Memory cells – occur when immune system pathogen.
is exposed to antigen that has been seen
b. Passive – injection of antibodies from
before.
another person or animal.
B memory cells – quickly divided to form
plasma cells which produce antibodies;
produces new memory cells.

Cell-mediated immunity – effective against

antigens in cells and tissues; effective
against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
protozoa; uses different types of T cells.

b. Cell-mediated

Terms related to adaptive immunity:

 Antigen – substance that stimulates

immune response (bacteria, virus,
pollen, food, drugs).

 Self-antigen – molecule produced by

person’s body that stimulates
immune system response.