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(Gloria Marie M. Valerio, MD) because it is synthesized by adrenal medulla but it is not synthesized in
the sympathetic nerve endings. The formation of epinephrine from
Endocrine System Nervous System norepinephrine takes place only in the adrenal medulla because the
enzyme that will catalyze this reaction is present only in the adrenal
Hormones Nerve impulses medulla that is why there is no conversion of epinephrine from
norepinephrine int the sympathetic post ganglionic nerve endings. So
Circulation Faster/Localized epinephrine is a hormone.
Slower/Diffused
3. Neuroendocrine Hormones
Regulate body processes
These are chemical substances synthesized by neuroendocrine
In the body there are two systems that regulate the different cells but released into the blood and NOT in the synaptic cleft. There are
body functions or processes and these are the endocrine system and two hormones synthesized by hypothalamic nuclei, stored and released
nervous system. These two systems aside from regulating different body by the posterior pituitary gland into the circulating blood and these are
processes or functions can also provide a means of communication oxytocin and the antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
among the different cells of the body. Meaning to say, they enable signals
from one cell to be transmitted to another cell causing that cell to 4. Paracrine
respond.
Paracrines are also hormones. It is synthesized by an
The endocrine system can regulate body functions or endocrine gland but released only into the interstitial fluid and NOT in
processes by releasing chemical substances called hormones into the the circulating blood. The target cell is located near the secretory cell. We
different body fluids and when we say body fluids we mean circulating will talk more about the paracrine control system when we go to the
blood and interstitial fluid. So from the body fluids, hormones are actions of insulin and glucagon.
transported to a specific site where they act on specific target cell eliciting
a physiologic response from the target cell. Regulation of the different 5. Autocrine
body processes by the endocrine system is said to be slower but more
diffuse. Slower, meaning the latent period or the interval between These are also chemical substances released into the
hormoneal stimulation and target cell response is longer. Diffuse because interstitial fluid. They act on the same cell that will synthesize them.
there are some hormones that can act on several target cells at the same Example is tumor growth factor (TGF). Tumour cells secrete a growth
time. factor into the interstitial fluid and this growth factor will act on the same
tumour cell stimulating growth of the tumour cell.
On the other hand, the nervous system regulates body
functions or processes by generating action potentials or nerve impulses 6. Cytokines
and these action potentials or nerve impulses are transmitted by specific
efferent or motor neuron to specific target cell or effector cell again These are peptides synthesized and released by the cells of the
eliciting a physiologic response from the target cell. And transmission of immune system and their main function is to mediate the actions of the
impulses from a motor neuron to an effector or target cell is also cells of the immune system.
mediated by a chemical substance this time we have a neurotransmitter
agent. Now regulation of body processes by the nervous system is faster.
Faster meaning the latent period between nervous stimulation and target Different Body Functions or Processes Regulated by the Endocrine
cell response is shorter. Localized because remember that specific motor System
neuron will innervate only specific effector cell.
1. Chemical Homeostasis
These are the two systems that regulate the different body
functions or processes and one thing common to both system is their Protein metabolism
actions are mediated by chemical substances; hormones for the Carbohydrate metabolism
endocrine system, neurotransmitter agent for the nervous system. Fat metabolism
Water and electrolyte metabolism
Types of Chemical Messenger System (Mediators) Under this, we have regulation of carbohydrate, fat and protein
metabolism. To give you examples of hormones that regulate
1. Neurotransmitters carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism, we have insulin and glucagon
from the pancreatic islets of Langerhans; growth hormone from the
Examples are acetylcholine and norepinephrine. How would anterior pituitary gland; even thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland;
you classify a chemical substance as a neurotransmitter agent? First, it has cortisol from the adrenal cortex; epinephrine and norepinephrine from
to be synthesized in the axon terminal of a neuron. Next, its release is due the adrenal medulla.
to an action potential or nerve impulse reaching the axon terminal. The
release of the NTA is by exocytosis into the synaptic cleft and exocytosis Next, still under chemical homeostasis is regulation of water
is facilitated by calcium ions. and electrolyte metabolism. Hormones involved are ADH from the
posterior pituitary gland, parathyroid hormone (PTH) from the
2. Endocrine Hormones parathyroid gland and aldosterone from the adrenal cortex.
Among the hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland 7. Adrenal Medulla EP, NEP
are growth hormone (GH) or somatotropin or somatotrophic hormone,
prolactin (PrL) or lactotrophic hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone Adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines epinephrine and
(TSH) or thyrotropin, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or norepinephrine. These catecholamines can also act on almost all cells of
corticotrophin, two types of gonadotrophic hormones or gonatropins: the body.
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH).
8. Ovaries Estrogen, Progesterone
The target cells or organs of each hormone:
Growth hormone - among its many target organs are the liver, In females, ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone. These
bone, muscle soft tissue. two hormones regulate the female reproductive function. Its target organ
Prolactin mammary gland is the female reproductive organs
Thyrotropin thyroid gland
Corticotrophin adrenal cortex 9. Testes Testosterone
FSH and LH ovaries in females, testis in males
In males, the testes secrete testosterone. Testosterone
Take note that these hormones are called trophic hormones. regulates the male reproductive function and its target organ is the male
Trophic, meaning to say, they can stimulate growth as well as secretory reproductive organs.
activity of their respective target glands or target organs. If you notice,
these trophic hormones can actually regulate the functions of almost all Why are the ovaries and testes included as part of purely
the other endocrine glands in the body so that when we say master endocrine glands but it has gametogenic functions? Its gametogenic
gland, we refer to the anterior pituitary gland. functions are completely dependent on the hormones.
Take note the posterior pituitary gland does NOT synthesize Aside from secreting hormones, they can serve other functions.
any hormones. Its major function is to store and release hormones that
are synthesized by hypothalamic nuclei. Again, there are two hormones 1. Nerve Endings Ach, EP
synthesized by hypothalamic nuclei, stored and released by the posterior
pituitary gland. First is antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or arginine Nerve endings release acetylcholine and norepinephrine.
vasopressin. The target cells of ADH are DCT and collecting ducts of the
nephron and vascular smooth muscle. The target cells of oxytocin are the 2. GIT Gastrin, CCK, Secretin
muscular layer of the uterus or myometrium and myoepithelial cells of
the breasts. Also considered a partly endocrine organ is the
gastrointestinal tract. Remember that the mucosal glands in the GIT can
Active hormone
Protein-bound Free
(inactive) (active) What are the characteristics or properties of polypeptide or
protein hormones? In the secretory cells, they are synthesized in the
Liver binding proteins rough endoplasmic reticulum from a large precursor called a
preprohormone. A preprohormone is cleaved to form a smaller
Estrogen (+) liver inc. production of binding proteins
molecule which is now called a prohormone. Usually they are not
Excess free hormone protein-binding inc. inactive
released into the circulating blood and they are inactive. A prohormone
Dec. free hormone protein bound hormones are
will be cleaved to form a smaller molecule which is now the active
released
hormone and this active hormone will be stored temporarily in secretory
vesicles released only upon stimulation. So it means that protein
In the circulating blood, hormones are present in two forms,
hormones can be stored and its secretion is not continuous, only upon
either they are protein bound or free. Protein bound hormone is
stimulation. Secretion is also by exocytosis, facilitated by calcium ion. In
biologically inactive. It is the free hormone that is biologically active.
the circulating blood, protein or polypeptide hormones are soluble so
Protein bound hormones are inactive because it cannot pass through the
they are transported mainly in the unbound form and since they are
cell membrane and before a hormone can act on its target cell, it has to
4 Shannen Kaye B. Apolinario, RMT
unbound, its plasma half life is shorter. Also, protein or polypeptide The neurotransmitters released either into the neuromuscular
hormones cannot cross the cell membrane and it cannot be given orally or neuroeffector junction also act locally because remember at the
(e.g. insulin) because it will be digested by the GI enzymes. neuromuscular or neuroeffector junction, the axon terminals are close to
the membrane of the effector cell.
2. Biogenic Amines
T3, T4 2. General Hormones
EP, NEP Site of effect is distant from site of release
PIF (Dopamine) Examples: thyroid hormones, growth hormones, trophic
hormones from adenohypophysis
Hormones that are synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine
are classified as biogenic amines and this will include the thyroid General hormones are hormones that act on target cells that
hormones - T3, T4, catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine, as are located far from the secretory cell. They are released in the blood, it
well as the prolactin inhibitory factor or dopamine. has to be transported in a distant site from the secretory cell.
T3 and T4 are synthesized by the thyroid follicular cells. After Examples are thyroid hormones. From the thyroid gland in the
synthesis, they are stored temporarily in the lumen of the thyroid follicle neck, thyroid hormones can act on the heart, they can act on the bone and
bound to a large glycoprotein molecule that is thyroglobulin. Just like the muscle, it can act on the GIT and all are far from the thyroid gland.
protein or polypeptide hormones, the secretion of T3 and T4 is not Another example is growth hormone from the anterior pituitary gland, it
continuous. It is only secreted upon stimulation so they can be stored. will act on the liver in the abdominal cavity, bone, muscle, all of which are
They are also released by exocytosis into the circulating blood and this far from the anterior pituitary gland. Also, the trophic hormones from
time, 99% of circulating thyroid hormones are bound to plasma proteins anterior pituitary gland, example is TSH. So from the anterior pituitary
and only 1% is free. Since many are bound to plasma proteins, its half life gland, it has to be transported in the thyroid gland. ACTH from the
is long. Thyroid hormones can cross the cell membrane. anterior pituitary gland, it has to be transported to the adrenal glands. So
the target cells are far from the secretory cells.
The secretory product of adrenal medulla is 80% epinephrine,
20% norepinephrine and a very small amount of dopamine. So this PIF or
dopamine is not synthesize in the hypothalamus only, it is also Mechanism of Action of a Hormone
synthesized in the adrenal medulla. In the circulating blood, they are
present in two forms, either bound or loosely bound to albumin and they 1. Hormone-Receptor Interaction
cannot cross the cell membrane. Receptors:
o Are chemical agents
3. Steroid o Stereospecificity
Estrogen, Progesterone, Testosterone o Number can increase of decrease; can even disappear
Cortisol, Aldosterone, Androgens Up-regulation = increase in one hormone can
Vitamin D increase number of receptors
Down-regulation
Hormones that are synthesized from cholesterol are classified
as steroid hormones and this will include sex hormones, adrenocortical Before a hormone can act on a target cell, it has to bind with
hormones and vitamin D. This time, they are lipid soluble so they are not receptors in the target cell so you need a hormone-receptor interaction or
soluble in the circulating blood. Again, they are present in the circulating a hormone-receptor complex. What are receptors? They are chemical
blood mostly bound to plasma proteins so its half life is long but they are subunits most of them are proteins and one important property of these
not stored in the secretory cells so whatever amount that is synthesized receptors is stereospecificty. It means that the configuration of one
are also released. Since they are lipid soluble, they can readily cross the receptor can only match to the configuration of one hormone. So the
cell membrane. receptor for estrogen cannot bind with progesterone, receptor for T3
cannot bind with PTH, receptor with insuin cannot bind with glucagon so
the hormone-receptor interaction is very specific.
III. Classification According to the Site of Target Cell
Since these receptors are proteins, they can be degraded or
1. Local Hormone resynthesized so that their number in the target cell is not constant. It can
Site of effect is close to site of release either increase or decrease or the receptors may disappear from the
Examples: target cell. Once its number decreased or disappeared, even if there are
o Paracrine system of pancreatic islet cells plenty of hormones there will be no action in the target cell. Example:
Beta cells (-) alpha cells there are two types of diabetes mellitus 1 and 2. In type 1, there is
(insulin) (glucagon) destruction of the pancreatic cells thus there is really no insulin so that
Alpha cells (+) beta cells the blood glucose level continues to increase. In type 2, the pancreatic B
(glucagon) (insulin) cells are normal or sometimes insulin secretion is higher than normal but
o NTA Ach and NEP the blood glucose level keeps on getting higher because the receptors
either decreased or disappeared on the target cell.
If the target cell is located near the secretory cell, we call the
hormone released as a local hormone. Most of the GI hormones are local Increased estrogen Increased production of receptors Oxytocin
hormones.
In relation to this, we have the principle of up-regulation of
Also included is the paracrine control system that exists in the receptors. Up-regulation wherein if there is an increase in one hormone,
pancreatic islets of Langerhans. So in the pancreatic islets there are this can up-regulate or increase the number of receptors for itself or for
different types of secretory cells secreting different types of hormones. another hormone. For example, if hormone A increased, in up-regulation,
What can happen is that insulin secreted by the cells can inhibit cells it will also increase receptors for itself or for other hormones. Another
from secreting glucagon. It is adjacent to one another so insulin can be example is during the last trimester of pregnancy, that is where the
released in the interstitial fluid and not in the blood. Same thing with secretion of estrogen is highest and one important action of estrogen is to
glucagon from the cells can stimulate cells to secrete insulin. So they increase the production of receptors for oxytocin in the myometrium of
are adjacent to each other and it is only in the interstitial fluid where the the uterus. So that once the posterior pituitary gland secreted oxytocin, it
hormones are released. will now bind with the receptors in the myometrium and it can stimulate
uterine contractions. One action of oxytocin is to stimulate uterine
contraction but oxytocin per se cannot stimulate uterine contraction
This is the mechanism that will regulate the activity of the Inhibin Testosterone
anterior pituitary gland, thyroid, adrenal cortex, ovaries, and testis.
In males, hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin releasing
H hormone that will stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete FSH
and LH. The target gland is the testis. In the testis, FSH stimulates the
GHRH GHIH sertoli cells so there will be secretion of a little amount of estrogen and
(+) (-) another hormone that is inhibin. LH stimulates the interstial cells of
AP Leydig that will secrete testosterone.
GH
Regulation of Hormone Secretion
Liver IGF-I
a. Negative feedback control
The hypothalamus secretes the growth hormone releasing
hormone that will stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete growth Excess free hormone from a target gland will inhibit the
hormone. One of the target cell or target organ of growth hormone is the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland.
liver. When stimulated, it will produce IGF I or somatomedin C. But
remember that the hypothalamus can also stimulate the secretion of H
growth inhibitory hormone that will now inhibit the anterior pituitary
gland from secreting growth hormone. GHRH GHIH (-)
(+) (-)
H TRH AP
(+)
AP TSH GH (-)
The hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin releasing hormone IGF I can regulate GHRH and GH by exerting a negative
that will stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete thyrotropin. feedback effect that is if it is in excess, it inhibits the hypothalamus from
Target gland now is the thyroid gland. When stimulated by TSH, it will secreting GHRH, it inhibits the anterior pituitary gland from producing
release T3 and T4. growth hormone. Everything will decrease and it will return back to