ENDOCRINE SYSTEM CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE

• Made up of widely distributed organs whose secretion reaches
target tissues or organs through its specific receptors via the
bloodstream.
• This system is called duct-less system
•Hormone levels in the blood are maintained by negative
feedback
• A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood triggers the
release of more hormone

HORMONE OVERVIEW • Hormone release stops once an appropriate level in the blood is
reached
• Hormones are produced by specialized cells
STEROID HORMONE ACTION
• Cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluids
• Blood transfers hormones to target sites
• These hormones regulate the activity of other cells
THE CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES
• Amino acid-based hormones
▪ Proteins
▪ Peptides
▪ Amines
• Steroids – made from cholesterol
• Prostaglandins – made from highly active lipids
MECHANISMS OF HORMONE ACTION HORMONAL STIMULI OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs (target cells or Endocrine glands are activated by other hormones
organs)
• Target cells must have specific protein receptors
• Hormone binding influences the working of the cells
EFFECTS CAUSED BY HORMONES
• Changes in plasma membrane permeability or
electrical state
• Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymes
• Activation or inactivation of enzymes
• Stimulation of mitosis
STEROID HORMONE ACTION
1. Diffuse through the plasma membrane of target cells
2. Enter the nucleus NEURAL STIMULI OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS
3. Bind to a specific protein within the nucleus •Nerve impulses stimulate hormone release
4. Bind to specific sites on the cell’s DNA • Most are under control of the sympathetic nervous system
5. Activate genes that result in synthesis of new proteins

NON-STEROID HORMONE ACTION

1. Hormone binds to a membrane receptor LOCATION OF MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS
2. Hormone does not enter the cell
3. Sets off a series of reactions that activates an enzyme
4. Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second messenger
molecule
5. Oversees additional intracellular changes to promote a specific
response
PITUITARY GLAND (HYPOPHYSIS CEREBRI)
• Lies in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone and attaches to the
hypothalamus by a stalk, the infundibulum.
• It is a pea shaped structure measuring 1-1.5 cm in diameter and
is composed of two lobes.
Two Lobes
A. Anterior lobe (Adenohypophysis)
B. Posterior lobe (Neurohypophysis)
ANTERIOR LOBE
• Makes up 75% of the total weight of the gland.
HORMONES:
1. Human growth hormone (hGH) or somatotropin
- Stimulates several tissues to secrete insulin like growth hormones that
stimulate general body growth and regulate aspects of metabolism.
2. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) or thyrotropin
- Controls the secretion and activities of the thyroid gland.
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or corticotropin
- stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids. Some
corticotrophs also secrete melanocyte-stimulating hormone
4. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
5. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
- FSH and LH are gonadotropic hormones which regulates the functions of
the gonads (ovaries and testes)
6. Prolactin (PRL)
- helps initiate and maintains milk secretion by the mammary gland
- Does not synthesize hormone, instead stores and releases two
hormones
- Secretions from the lobe are produced by the cell bodies of the
supraoptic nucleus (produces vasopressin or antidiuretic
hormone/ADH), and the paraventricular nucleus (produces
oxytocin) of the hypothalamus and are moved by axonal transport
to the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary.
HORMONES STORED IN NEUROHYPOPHYSIS:
A. Oxytocin – enhances smooth muscle contraction in the walls of
the uterus during delivery, it stimulates milk ejection (“letdown”
from the mammary glands in response to the mechanical
stimulation provided by the sucking infant.
B. Antidiuretic hormone – conserves body water by decreasing
urine volume; decreases water loss through perspiration; raises
blood pressure by constricting arterioles.
PINEAL GLAND (EPIPHYSIS CEREBRI)
- Located at the caudal end of the diencephalon of the
brain
- Consist of cells called pinealocytes
- Hormone secreted: Melatonin derived from serotonin
(promote sleepiness)
THYROID GLAND
- located in the lower part of the anterior neck, with a
pair of lobes connected in the midline by an isthmus.
- contains follicles, which secrete 2 thyroid hormones:
Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by thyroid follicles
Triiodothyronine (T3) – conversion of T4 at target tissues
- Actions of thyroid hormones:
1. Increase basal metabolic rate
2. Help maintain normal body temperature
- Also secretes thyrocalcitonin secreted by the
parafollicular cells which helps regulate calcium
homeostasis.
PARATHYROID GLANDS
- 2 pairs of yellow glands closely related to the
posterior surface of the thyroid gland
-Secretes: Parathyroid hormone/Parathormone –
which directly elevate blood calcium
- Stimulate osteoclasts to remove calcium from
bone
- Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to absorb
more calcium
ADRENAL (SUPRARENAL) GLANDS
-A pair of glands resting on top of each
kidney.
- 2 layers
2 LAYERS
1. Adrenal cortex
Secretions:
A. Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone and
deoxycortisones)
- regulate fluids and electrolytes
- help adjust blood pressure and blood volume
B. Glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisone)
- Regulate metabolism and resistance to stress
C. Androgens
- Promotes libido in females and are converted to estrogen. It also
stimulates growth of axillary and pubic hairs in boys and girls and
contribute to the prepubertal growth spurt
HORMONES OF THE ADRENAL CORTEX
2. Adrenal Medulla
- Secretes the cathecolamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine
- produces effects that enhance those of the sympathetic division
of the autonomic nervous system during stress.
PANCREAS
- pistol-shaped flattened organ, the head part of which is enclosed
by the duodenum, the body at the back of stomach and tail
related with spleen.
- The endocrine portion of the pancreas consists of the cells of the
Islets of Langerhans scattered among the exocrine acini.
- Cell populations found in the pancreatic islets:
1. Alpha cells – produces glucagon, which increases blood glucose
levels when it falls below normal.
2. Beta cells – produce insulin, helps lower blood glucose levels
when it is too high
3. Delta cells – produce somatostatin which inhibits secretion of
insulin and glucagon and slows absorption of nutrients from the
gastrointestinal tract
4. F cells – secrete pancreatic polypeptides.
PANCREATIC HORMONES AND BLOOD SUGAR
GONADS
- Are the organs that produces gamates – sperms in amles and
oocytes in females.
- The female gonad is the ovary, a pair of oval bodies located in
the pelvic cavity.
- The male gonad, the testes are oval glands that lie in the scrotal
sac.
TESTES
- the initial cells of Leydig in the testes secretes these androgens:
1. Testosterone
2. Androstenedione
3. Dehydrotestosterone
- Its main hormone testosterone regulates production of sperm
and stimulates the development and maintenance of masculine
secondary sex characteristics such as beard growth and
deepening of the voice.
OVARIES
- the follicular cells of the ovarian follicle secrete estrogen and the
corpus luteum secretes progesterone.
- these hormones regulate the female reproductive cycle.
Regulate oogenesis, maintain pregnancy, prepare the mammary
gland for lactation and promote development and maintenance of
female secondary sex characteristics.
HORMONES OF THE OVARIES
ESTROGENS
▪ Produced by Graafian follicles or the placenta
▪ Stimulates the development of secondary female
characteristics
▪ Matures female reproductive organs
▪ Helps prepare the uterus to receive a fertilized egg
▪ Helps maintain pregnancy
▪ Prepares the breasts to produce milk
• Cretinism - abnormal thyroid development; short, stocky body
type. Severe hypothyroidism causes mental retardation
• Myxedema - Hypothyroidism in adults-lethargy, weight gain,
loss of hair.
• Acromegaly - Excess production of GH; the growth plates of
bone have closed so no increased growth in height.
– Feet, hands, and face become “heavy” in appearance

PROGESTERONE
▪ Produced by the corpus luteum
▪ Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
▪ Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus
OTHER HORMONE-PRODUCING TISSUES AND ORGANS
• Parts of the small intestine
• Parts of the stomach
• Kidneys
• Heart
• Many other areas have scattered endocrine cells
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• Most endocrine organs operate smoothly until old age
▪ Menopause is brought about by lack of efficiency of the
ovaries
▪ Problems associated with reduced estrogen are common
▪ Growth hormone production declines with age
▪ Many endocrine glands decrease output with age
EFFECT OF GROWTH HORMONE
– Greatest production occurs during childhood
• Lack of GH - pituitary dwarfism
• Excess - giantism
SELECTED DISEASES AFFECTING THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS:
Grave’s disease
- an autoimmune disorder associated with increased circulating
levels of thyroid hormones; hyperthyroidism; causes
exophthalmic goiteredema behind eyes causing bulging;
hyperactivity, arrythmias
Diabetes mellitus
- disorder of metabolism and chronic hyperglycemia
Cushing’s syndrome
- refers to the manifestations of excessive corticosteroids
e.g. Central obesity, buffalo hump, hypertension, hyperglycemia
Addison’s disease
- disorder caused by the destruction of the adrenal cortices
characterized by chronic deficiency of cortisol, aldosterone and
androgens causing skin pigmentation.