ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The Hormone System

ADRENAL GLANDS
ADRENAL GLANDS

• wedges of glandular and neuroendocrin

e tissue adhering to the top of the kidne
ys by a fibrous capsule

• consists of an outer cortex of glandular ti

ssue and inner medulla of nervous tissue

• The cortex itself is divided into three zon

es: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata a
nd zona reticularis

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ADRENAL CORTEX
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 ADRENAL CORTEX

• secretes steroid hormones important for the regulation of the long-term stress response,
blood pressure and blood volume, nutrient uptake and storage, fluid and electrolyte bal
ance, and inflammation.
• It produces hormones called corticosteroids that influence or regulate salt and water bal
ance in the body.

THREE ZONES OF THE CORTEX

• ZONA GLOMERULOSA
• ZONA FASCICULATA
• ZONA RETICULARIS

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ADRENAL CORTEX

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 ZONA GLOMERULOSA
• Most superficial region
• Produces a group of hormones collectively referred to as mineralocorticoids because
of their effect on body minerals especially Na and K.
• Mineralocorticoids are essential for fluid and electrolyte balance

• ALDOSTERONE is the major mineralocorticoid.

• Important in the regulation of the concentration of Na and K ions in urine, s
weat and saliva.
• It is also a key component of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAA
S) in which specialized cells of the kidneys secrete the enzyme renin in resp
onse to low blood volume or low blood pressure.

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 ZONA GLOMERULOSA

Renin then catalyzes the Angiotensin I is converted

conversion of the blood in the lungs to angiotensin
protein angiotensinogen II by angiotensin-
produced by the liver, to converting
the hormone angiotensin I. enzyme (ACE).

Angiotensin II has three major functions:

• Initiating vasoconstriction of the arterioles, decreasing blood flow
• Stimulating kidney tubules to reabsorb NaCl and water, increasing blood volume
• Signaling the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone, the effects of which further contri
bute to fluid retention, restoring blood pressure and blood volume

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 ZONA FASCICULATA
• Intermediate region
• produce hormones called glucocorticoids because of their role in glucose metabolism.
• Cortisol is an example of glucocorticoids
• In response to long-term stressors :

triggers the release of

hypothalamus secretes
ACTH by the anterior
CRH
pituitary

inhibit tissue building

ACTH triggers the while stimulating the
release of the breakdown of stored
glucocorticoids nutrients to maintain
adequate fuel supplies
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 ZONA FASCICULATA
In condition of long-term stress

used to synthesize
cortisol promotes
additional glucose
the catabolism of
and ketones for use
glycogen to glucose
as body fuels

The hippocampus is highly sensitive to stress levels because of its many gluco
corticoid receptors.

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 ZONA RETICULARIS
• deepest region
• produces small amounts of a class of steroid sex hormones called androgens
• During puberty and most of adulthood, androgens are produced in the gonads.
• The androgens produced in the zona reticularis supplement the gonadal androgens.
• They are produced in response to ACTH from the anterior pituitary and are converte
d in the tissues to testosterone or estrogens.
• In adult women, they may contribute to the sex drive, but their function in adult men
is not well understood.
• In post-menopausal women, as the functions of the ovaries decline, the main source
of estrogens becomes the androgens produced by the zona reticularis.

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ADRENAL MEDULLA
ADRENAL MEDULLA

• Releases hormones in response to acu

te, short-term stress mediated by the S
ympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
• The medullary tissue is composed of u
nique SNS neurons called chromaffin
cells.
• These cells produce the neurotransmit
ters epinephrine, and norepinephrine.
• Epinephrine is produced in greater qu
antities - and is the most powerful hor
mone.
• Epinephrine and Norepinephrine are c
onsidered as hormones.

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ADRENAL MEDULLA

• The secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine is controlled

by a neural pathway that originates from the hypothalamus in r
esponse to danger or stress.
• Both hormones signal the liver and skeletal muscle cells to con
vert glycogen into glucose, resulting in increased blood sugar l
evels.
• It also increases heart rate, pulse, and blood pressure to prepar
e the body to fight threats or flee from it.
• In addition, it also dilates the airways, raising blood oxygen leve
ls.
• It also prompts vasodilation, and at the same time triggers vaso
constriction.
ADRENAL MEDULLA

Adrenal Gland Associated Hormones Chemical Class Effect

Adrenal cortex Aldosterone Steroid Increases blood Na+

levels

Adrenal cortex Cortisol, Steroid Increase blood glucose

corticosterone, levels
cortisone

Adrenal medulla Epinephrine, Amine Stimulate fight-or-flight

norepinephrine response
DISORDERS IN THE ADRENAL GLANDS
Dysregulation of the hormones produced by the adrenal glands

Cushing Disease
• Characterized by hyposecretion of corticoster
oids
• Most Common Source: a pituitary tumor that
(secretes abnormally high amounts of cortisol
or ACTH)
• Signs of the disease:
• Development of moon-shaped face
• Buffalo hump on the back of the neck
• Rapid weight gain
• Hair loss

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DISORDERS IN THE ADRENAL GLANDS
Dysregulation of the hormones produced by the adrenal glands

Addison’s disease
• Characterized by high blood glucose levels an
d accumulation of lipid deposits on the face a
nd neck
• Diagnosis is Difficult
• Signs of the disease:
• General Weaknesses
• Abdominal pain
• Weight loss and Sweating
• Nausea and Vomiting
• Cravings for salty food

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PINEAL GLAND
PINEAL GLAND
Inferior but somewhat posterior to the thalamus

The pinealocyte cells t

hat make up the pineal
gland are known to pro
duce and secrete the a
mine hormone melato
nin.

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PINEAL GLAND
The secretion of melatonin varies according to the level of light received from the environment

Light Levels Incline Light Levels Decline

• When photons of light stimulate the ret • Melatonin production increases, boosti
inas of the eye, a nerve impulse is sent ng blood levels and causing drowsines
to a region of the hypothalamus called s
the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).
• From the SCN, the nerve signal is carri
ed to a spinal cord and eventually to th
e pineal gland
• As a result, blood levels of melatonin fa
ll, promoting wakefulness
PINEAL GLAND

• The secretion of melatonin may influence the body’s circ

adian rhythms, the dark-light fluctuations that affect not
only sleepiness and wakefulness, but also appetite and b
ody temperature.

• Interestingly, children have higher melatonin levels than

adults, which may prevent the release of gonadotropins, t
hereby inhibiting the onset of puberty.
PINEAL GLAND

Jet Lag
• When a person travels across several
time zones and feels sleepy during th
e day or wakeful at night
• Can take up to several days for melat
onin synthesis to adjust to the light-d
ark patterns in the new environment
• Taking of melatonin supplements is c
ommonly done by travelers to induc
e sleep.

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GONADS
GONADAL AND PLACENTAL HORMONES

Testes
• Produces the hormone, Testosterone
• a steroid hormone important in the
development of the male reproducti
ve system, maturation of sperm cells
and development of male secondary
sex characteristics
• Produces the peptide hormone, Inhibi
n
• inhibits the secretion of FSH from th
e anterior pituitary gland.
• FSH stimulates spermatogenesis
• origin and development of the sper
m cells within the reproductive orga
ns, the testes.
GONADAL AND PLACENTAL HORMONES

Ovaries
• Produces the hormone, Estrogens
• plays an important role in the developmen
t of the female reproductive system, regul
ation of the menstrual cycle, development
of female secondary sex characteristics.

• Produces the hormone, Progesterone

• contributes to regulation of the menstrual
cycle and important in preparing the body
for pregnancy as well as maintaining preg
nancy

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PLACENTA

• Develops within the uterus

• Supplies oxygen and nutrients to the fetu
s, excretes waste products, produces an
d secretes estrogens and progesterone.
• Produces human chorionic gonadotrophi
n (hCG)
• promotes progesterone synthesis and reduce
s the mother’s immune function to protect th
e fetus from immune rejection

• Secretes human placental lactogen (hPL)

• plays a role in preparing the breasts for lactat
ion, and relaxin, to help soften and widen the
pubic symphysis in preparation for child birth

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PANCREAS
Endocrine Function
Pancreas

• Long, slender organ and posterior to the bottom half of the stomach.
• Pancreatic Islets (Islets of Langerhans)
• secrete the hormones glucagon, insulin, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide (PP)
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Pancreatic Islets
Cells and Secretion
Alpha Cell
• Produce the hormone gluca
gon
• 20% of each islet
• Stimulated from low blood
glucose levels
Beta Cell
• Produce the hormone insuli
n ptide hormone
• 75% of each islet
• Stimulated from elevated bl
ood glucose levels
Delta Cell
• Secretes somatostatin (pept
ide hormone)
• 4% of each islet
• Inhibits the release of both
glucagon and insulin
PP Cell
• Secretes pancreatic polype
• 1% of each islet
• Role in appetite, regulation
of pancreatic exocrine and
endocrine secretions
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Blood Glucose Levels
Regulation by Insulin and Glucagon

Glucose
• Required for cellular respiration and are the preferred fuel for all body cells.
• Derives from the breakdown of the carbohydrate-containing foods and drinks taken-up.

Glycogen Triglycerides
• Stored Glucose in the liver and muscle • Converted Glucose that are stored in the
s that are not immediately taken up by adipose tissue.
cells for fuel.

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Blood Glucose Levels
Storage and Utilization of Glucose

Glucagon
• Secreted by the Alpha cells.
• Regulated through a negative feedback mec
hanism
• Increase blood glucose levels
 Stimulates the liver to convert its stores of
glycogen back into glucose (Glycogenolysi
s)
 Stimulates the liver to take up amino acids
from the blood and convert them into gluc
ose (Gluconeogenesis)
 Stimulates lipolysis, breakdown of stored t
riglycerides into free fatty acids and glycer
ol

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 Blood Glucose Levels

Regulated by Insulin and Glucagon

Normal Blood Glucose Concentration (betw

een 70 mg/dL and 110 mg/dL)

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Blood Glucose Levels
Regulation by Insulin and Glucagon

Insulin
• Regulated through a negative feedback mec
hanism
• Decreases Blood Glucose Levels
 Stimulates Glycolysis – metabolism
of glucose for generation of ATP
 Stimulates the liver to convert exc
ess glucose into glycogen for stora
ge, inhibits enzymes involved in Gl
ycogenolysis and Gluconeogenesis
 Promotes triglyceride and protein
synthesis

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 Blood Glucose Levels

Regulated by Insulin and Glucagon

Normal Blood Glucose Concentration (betw

een 70 mg/dL and 110 mg/dL)

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Blood Glucose Levels
Regulation by Insulin and Glucagon

Insulin
• Facilitate the uptake of glucose into b
ody cells
• Target Cells: Skeletal Muscle and Adi
pose Cells
• Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic Pe
ptide (Gastric Inhibitory Peptide)
 Initial trigger for insulin production
and secretion
• Activates a tyrosine kinase receptor, t
riggering phosphorylation of many su
bstrates within the cell
• Triggers the rapid movement of a poo
l of glucose transporter vesicles to the
cell membrane

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Pancreatic Hormones
A Summary

Associated Hormones Chemical Class Effect

Reduces blood glucose

Insulin (Beta Cells) Protein
levels

Increases blood glucose

Glucagon (Alpha Cells) Protein
levels

Inhibits insulin and

Somatostatin (Delta Cells) Protein
glucagon release

Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP

Protein Role in appetite
Cells)

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ORGANS WITH SECONDA
RY FUNCTIONS
Organs with Secondary Functions
Heart

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)

• Signals the kidneys to reduce sodium reabsorptio
n
• Inhibits Renin secretion
• Initiation of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Sy
stem (RAAS) and vasodilation
• Aids in decreasing blood pressure, blood volume a
nd blood sodium levels

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Organs with Secondary Functions
Gastrointestinal Tract

Gastrin
• Peptide Hormone
• Secreted in response to stomach distention that st
imulates the release of hydrochloric acid

Secretin
• Peptide Hormone
• Stimulates the release of bicarbonate from the pancreas
which buffers the acidic chime
• Inhibits further secretion of hydrochloric acid

Cholecystokinin (CCK)
• Peptide Hormone
• Promotes the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and the
release of bile from the gallbladder

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Organs with Secondary Functions
Kidneys

Renin
• Enzyme
• Triggering the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone (RA
AS) system
• Stimulates the reabsorption of sodium and water

Calcitriol
• From Vitamin D₃
• Released in response to the secretion of Parathyroid
Hormone (PTH)
• Regulates blood calcium levels

Erythropoietin (EPO)
• Response to low Oxygen levels
• Stimulates the production of red blood cells (erythrocytes)
in the bone marrow

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Organs with Secondary Functions
Skeleton

Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 (FGF23)

• Response to increased blood levels of vitamin D₃ o
r Phosphate
• Inhibit the formation of Calcitriol from vitamin D₃ a
nd increase Phosphorus excretion in the kidneys

Osteocalcin
• Stimulates pancreatic beta cells to increase insulin
production
• Acts on peripheral tissues to increase their sensitivity to
insulin and their utilization of glucose

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Organs with Secondary Functions
Adipose Tissue

Leptin
• Protein
• Released in response to food consumption
• Acts by binding to brain neurons involved in energ
y intake and expenditure
• Produces a feeling of satiety (reducing appetite)
• Triggers SNS to regulate bone metabolism (increas
ing deposition of cortical bone)

Adiponectin
• Hormone
• Reduce cellular insulin resistance
• Protect blood vessels from inflammation and
atherosclerosis

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Organs with Secondary Functions
Skin

Cholecalciferol
• From the exposed epidermis to ultraviolet radiatio
n
• Converted to an intermediate in the liver
• Converted to Calcitriol in the kidneys
• Important in intestinal calcium absorption and im
mune system function

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Organs with Secondary Functions
Thymus

Thymosins
• Contribute to the development and differentiation
of T lymphocytes (immune cells)
• Contribute to Immune response
• Found in other tissues other than the thymus

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Organs with Secondary Functions
Liver

Insulin-like Growth Factor (Somatomedin)

• Immediate stimulus for growth in the body (esp. b
ones)
Angiotensinogen
• Precursor to angiotensin which increases blood pressure

Thrombopoetin
• Stimulates the production of the blood’s platelets

Hepcidins
• Block the release of iron from cells in the body
• Helps in regulating iron homeostasis in our body fluids

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Organs with Secondary Functions
Organ Major Hormones Effects
Heart Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) Reduces blood volume, blood
pressure, and Na⁺ concentration

Gastrointestinal Tract Gastrin, Secretin and Aid digestion of food and

Cholecystokinin buffering of stomach acids
Gastrointestinal Tract Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic Stimulate beta cells of the
Peptide (GIP) and Glucagon-like pancreas to release insulin
Peptide 1 (GLP-1)

Kidneys Renin Stimulates release of aldosterone

Kidneys Calcitriol Aids in the absorption of Ca²⁺

Kidneys Erythropoietin Triggers the formation of red
blood cells in the bone marrow
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Organs with Secondary Functions
Organ Major Hormones Effects

Skeleton FGF23 Inhibits production of calcitriol

and increases phosphate
excretion

Skeleton Osteocalcin Increases insulin production

Adipose Tissue Leptin Promotes satiety signals in the

brain

Adipose Tissue Adiponectin Reduces insulin resistance

Skin Cholecalciferol Modified to form vitamin D

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Organs with Secondary Functions
Organ Major Hormones Effects

Thymus (and other organs) Thymosins Among other things, aids in the
development of T lymphocytes
of the immune system

Liver Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 Stimulates bodily growth

Liver Angiotensinogen Raises blood pressure

Liver Thrombopoetin Causes increase in platelets

Liver Hepcidin Blocks release of iron into body

fluids

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DEVELOPMENT AND
AGING
Endocrine System
Embryonic G Mesoderm

erm Layers
1 • Produce steroid hormones
• Gonads and Adrenal Cortex

Endoderm
2 • Produce amine, peptide and protein hormones
• Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands, Pancreas and
Thymus
Ectoderm
3 • Produce amine, peptide and protein hormones
• Pineal Gland
• Oral Ectoderm
 Anterior Pituitary
• Neural Ectoderm
 Posterior Pituitary and Adrenal Medulla
 Ovaries
BODY AGES •
•
Decline in ovarian function
Decrease in both size and weight
• Less sensitive to gonadotropins
• Decrease in estrogen and progesterone level
s (Menopause, Inability to reproduce, Diseas

Adrenal Glands
es: osteoporosis, atherosclerosis, hyperlipide
mia or abnormal lipid levels)
• Fibrous tissue increases
• Production of cortisol and aldosterone decre
ases
• Production & secretion of epinephrine and n
orepinephrine remain normal

Anterior Pituitary
• Vascularization decreases
• Connective Tissue content increases
• Gland’s Hormone production is affected
 Testes
BODY AGES • Testosterone levels decline (andropause or v
iropause)
• Rarely affecting sperm production
• Quantity, quality and motility of sperm is red
uced

Thyroid Gland
• Less production of Thyroid Hormones
• Gradual decrease in basal metabolic rate
• Reduction of body heat production
• Increase in body fat levels

Parathyroid Glands
• Compensatory increase in PTH levels due to
reduced dietary calcium levels
• Stimulates demineralization of bones to incr
ease blood calcium levels (osteoporosis)
 • Blood glucose levels spike more rapidly
• Take longer to return to normal
Glucose M • Increasing glucose intolerance (Gradual decline in cellula

etabolism r insulin sensitivity)

THANK YOU!
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