ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The Hormone System

WHAT IS IT?

• Is made up of glands or collection of glands in

your body that make and secrete hormones.
• The “Chemical messengers”.
• Makes sure that your body works the way it sho
uld.

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MAKES UP OF MANY DIFFERENT GLANDS …
Mainly the:

 HYPOTHALAMUS  THYMUS
 PITUITARY GLAND  ADRENAL GLAND
 PINEAL GLAND  PANCREAS
 THYROID GLAND  OVARIES (woman)
 PARATHYROID GLAND  TESTES (man)

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4
Endocrine Glands

Hypothalamus Pituitary Gland Pineal Gland Thyroid

• The organ connects yo • Is the “master” gland of • Makes a chemical calle • Makes thyroid hormon
ur endocrine system wi the system. d melatonin. e, which controls your
th your nervous syste metabolism.
m. • It uses information it ge • It helps your body get r
• Its main job is to tell yo ts from your brain to “te eady o go to sleep.
ur pituitary gland to sta ll” other glands in your
rt or stop making horm body what to do.
ones.
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 Parathyroid Thymus Adrenals Pancreas
• Is a set of four small gla • Makes white blood cells • Best known for making t • Is part of both your dige
nds behind your thyroi called T-lymphocytes th he “fight or flight” horm stive and endocrine syst
d. at fight infection. one adrenaline. em.
• They are important for • Also make corticosteroi • It makes digestive enzy
bone health. • It starts to shrink after p ds. mes that breaks down f
• Controls your levels of c uberty. • Hormones that affect yo ood.
alcium and phosphorus. ur metabolism and sexu • Makes the hormones in
al function. sulin and glucagon.
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 Ovaries
• In women, these organs make estrogen and
progesterone.
• It help develop breasts at puberty, regulate
the menstrual cycle, and support pregnanc
y.
Testes
• In men, these make testosterone.
• It helps them grow facial and body hair at p
uberty.
• Also tells the penis to grow larger and plays
a role in making sperm.

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FUNCTIONS
OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
FIVE MAIN FUNCTIONS:

Metabolism Temperature Regulation

1 • All chemical reactions involved in maintainin
g the living state of the cells and the organis
m
4 • A process that allows your body to maintain i
ts core internal temperature

Control Growth Stress Response

2 • The progressive development of a living thin
g, especially the process by which the body r
eaches its point of complete physical develo
5 • An organism's response to a or a condition su
ch as a threat, challenge or physical and psyc
hological barrier
pment

Reproduction Etc.
3 • The production of offspring
6 • Other Functions

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Fundamental Function
of the Endocrine System

Sending a text message Cells send chemical signals

In general, ENDOCRIN
E System
is a “Chemical messen
ger.”
 OVERVIEW
OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
NEURAL & ENDOCRINE
SIGNALING
The Connection
Neural Signaling
A Recap on Intercellular Communication…

• Two Types: Electrical and Chemi

cal Signaling
• Neural communication enables b
ody functions that involve quick,
brief actions/response such as m
ovement, sensation, and cognitio
n.

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Endocrine Signaling
Intercellular Communication

• One Method: Chemical Signa

ling
• Requires more time to respo
nd
• Less specific
• Slower acting- maintaining h
omeostasis

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Neural & Endocrine Signaling
The Connection

Endocrine Nervous

Signaling Chemical/
Chemical
mechanism(s) Electrical Nervous System can c
Primary chemical ause rapid endocrine
Hormones Neurotransmitters responses to keep up
signal
with sudden changes
Distance Traveled Long or Short Always Short in both the external a
nd internal environme
Response Time Fast or Slow Always Fast nts when necessary.
Environment
Internal Internal & External
targeted

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
STRUCTURES
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Consists of cells, tissues and organs that secrete hormones

Endocrine Gland
 Major player in the system
 It includes the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal glands
and pancreas.
 Its primary function is to secrete hormones directly into the surround
ing fluid of the body.

EXOCRINE SYSTEM
 Releases their secretions through ducts
 Examples of Exocrine glands are the sebaceous and sweat glands of the skin.

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CHEMICAL SIGNALING
 ENDOCRINE SIGNALING
• Hormones secreted into the extracellular fluid diffuse into the blood
or lymph and can travel great distances throughout the body
• Usually produce a lower response but have long-lasting effect.

AUTOCRINE SIGNALING
• Is a chemical that elicits a response in the same cell that secreted it
• Often occurs during the early development of an organism to ensure
that cells develop into the correct tissues and take on the proper fu
nction.
• Regulates pain sensation and inflammatory response

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INTERLEUKIN-1 SIGNALING
• A signaling molecule that plays an important role in inflammatory res
ponse

PARACRINE SIGNALING
• Also called a paracrine factor
• Chemical that induces a response in neighboring cells.
• Concentration is generally too low to elicit a response from distant ti
ssues.
• Move by diffusion through the extracellular matrix
• Type of signal that which usually elicit quick responses
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HORMONES
• Are the bodies chemical messengers

• Transfer information and instructions from one set of cells to an

other

• Many different hormones move through the bloodstream, but e

ach type of hormone is designed to affect only certain cells

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ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR MAJOR HORMONES

Endocrine Gland Associated Hormones Chemical Class Effect

Pituitary Growth Hormone Protein Promotes growth of body
(anterior) (GH) tissues
Pituitary Prolactin Peptide Promotes milk production
(anterior) (PRL)
Pituitary Thyroid-Stimulating Glycoprotein Stimulates thyroid
(anterior) Hormone (TSH) hormone release
Pituitary Adrenocorticotrophic Peptide Stimulates hormone
(anterior) Hormone (ACTH) release by adrenal cortex
Pituitary Follicle-Stimulating Glycoprotein Stimulates gamete
(anterior) Hormone (FSH) production
Pituitary Luteinizing Hormone Glycoprotein Stimulates androgen
(anterior) (LH) production by gonads
Endocrine Gland Associated Hormones Chemical Class Effect
Pituitary Antidiuretic Hormone Peptide Stimulates water
(posterior) (ADH) reabsorption by kidneys
Pituitary Oxytocin Peptide Stimulates uterine
(posterior) contractions during
childbirth
Thyroid Thyroxin Triiodothyrine Amine Stimulates basal metabolic
rate
Thyroid Calcitonin Peptide Reduces blood Ca2 levels

Parathyroid Parathyroid Hormone Peptide Increases blood Ca2 levels

(PTH)
Adrenal Aldosterone Steroid Increases blood Na levels
(cortex)
Adrenal Cortisol, corticosterone, Steroid Increases blood glucose
(Cortex) cortisone levels
Adrenal Epinephrine, Amine Stimulate fight-or-flight
(Medulla) Norepinephrine response
Pineal Melatonin Amine Regulates sleep cycles
Endocrine Gland Associated Hormones Chemical Class Effect
Pancreas Insulin Protein Reduces blood glucose
levels
Pancreas Glucagon Protein Increases blood glucose
levels
Testes Testosterone Steroid Stimulates development of
male secondary sex
characteristics and sperm
production
Ovaries Estrogens, progesterone Steroid Stimulates development of
female secondary sex
characteristics and prepare
the body for childbirth
TYPES OF HORMONES
 Types of Hormones
Synthesized from tyrosine
• Melatonin (hormone) – helps reg
ulate circadian rhythm
• Metabolism-regulating hormones
• Catecholamines (epinephrine, no Amine
repinephrine, dopamine)
E.g: Antidiuretic hormone
• A pituitary hormone important Peptide
in fluid balance and atrial-natr
iuretic peptide
• Produced by the heart and hel
ps decrease blood pressure
• Short chains of amino acids
E.g: Growth Hormone
• produced by pituitary gland a
nd follicle-stimulating hormon
e
Protein • Long chains of linked amino a
cids
Lipid cholesterol
• Testosterone and estrogens
Steroid • Adrenal glands- produce stero
id hormone aldosterone which
involves in osmoregulation an
d cortisol which plays a role in
metabolism
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PATHWAYS OF HOR
MONE ACTION
Pathways of Hormone Action

• The message of the hormones is received by a hormone recept

or, a protein located either inside the cell or within the cell me
mbrane.
• It processes the message by initiating other signaling events or
cellular mechanisms that result in the target cell’s response.
• The same type of receptor may be located on cells in different b
ody tissues, and trigger somewhat different responses.
• The response triggered by a hormone depends not only on the
hormone, but also on the target cell.

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Pathways Involving Intracellular Hormone Receptor

• Are receptors which are located inside the cell

• The hormones which bind to this receptor must be a

ble to cross the cell membrane.

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Pathways Involving Intracellular Hormone Receptor
Location of steroid and thyroid hormones

• The location of the steroid and thyroid hormone binding differs

slightly.
• Steroid hormones may bind to its receptor within the cytosol or
nucleus.
• This binding generates a hormone-receptor complex that move
s toward the chromatin in the cell nucleus and binds to a partic
ular segment of the cell’s DNA.
• In contrast, thyroid hormones bind to receptors already bound t
o DNA.

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Binding of Lipid-Soluble Hormones

• Transcription of gen
e creates a messen
ger RNA that is tran
slated into the desir
ed protein within th
e cytoplasm.

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 Diffuse
1 Through the plasma membrane

Bind
Binding of Lipid-S
oluble Hormones
2 With the receptor in the cytoplasm forming a rece
ptor-hormone complex

Transcription
3 RHC enters nucleus and triggers gene transcripti
on

Translation
4 Transcribed mRNA is translated into proteins that
alter cell activity
PATHWAYS INVOLVIN
G CELL MEMBRANE H
ORMONE RECEPTORS
Pathways Involving Cell Membrane Hormone Receptors
• Hormones are unable to diffuse through the lipid bilayer of the
cell membrane and must therefore pass on their message to a r
eceptor located on the surface of the cell.
• Except for thyroid hormones, all amino acid-derived hormones
bind to cell receptors that are located on the extracellular surfa
ce of the cell membrane.
• Therefore, they do not directly affect the transcription of target
genes, but instead initiate a signaling cascade that is carried ou
t by a molecule called a second messenger.
• In this case, the hormone is called a first messenger.

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Pathways Involving Cell Membrane Hormone Re
ceptors
• The second messenger is cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cA
MP).
• In the cAMP second messenger system, a water soluble hormon
e binds to its receptor in the cell membrane.
• When the hormone binds to the cell membrane receptor, it acti
vates the G protein component.
• In turn, it activates an enzyme called adenylyl cyclase.
• Which converts ATP to cAMP.
• cAMP activates a type of enzyme called a protein kinase.
• The protein kinases initiate a phosphorylation cascade.
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Binding of Water-Soluble Hormones

• The protein kinases

phosphorylate prot
eins in the cytoplas
m. This activates pr
oteins in the cell th
at carry out the cha
nges specified by th
e hormone.

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Binding of Water S Bind
The hormone to the receptor in the cell membr
oluble Hormones ane.

Activation
Activates the G-protein component.

Activatio
n
G-protein activates an enzyme called adenylyl c
yclase
 Conversion
Adenylyl cyclase converts ATP to cAMP.

Activatio
n
cAMP activates protein kinase.

Initiatio
n
Protein kinases initiate phosphorylation cascad
e.
Pathways Involving Cell Membrane Hormone Re
ceptors
• Overall, the phosphorylation cascade increases the efficiency, s
peed, and specificity of the hormonal response.
• However, the duration of the hormone signal is short, as cAMP i
s quickly deactivated by the enzyme phosphodiesterase (PDE).
• There are also G proteins that decrease the levels of cAMP. For
example, when growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH) bin
ds to its receptors in the pituitary gland, the level of cAMP decr
eases, thereby inhibiting secretion of human growth hormone.

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Pathways Involving Cell Membrane Hormone Re
ceptors
• Not all water-soluble hormones initiate the cAMP second messenger s
ystem.
• One common alternative system uses calcium ions as a second messe
nger.
• In this system, G proteins activate the enzyme phospholipase C (PLC).
• Once activated, PLC cleaves a membrane-bound phospholipid into tw
o molecules: diacylglycerol (DAG) and inositol triphosphate (IP3).
• DAG activates protein kinases that initiate a phosphorylation cascade.
At the same time, IP3 causes calcium ions to be released from storage
sites within the cytosol.

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Pathways Involving Cell Membrane Hormone Re
ceptors
• The calcium ions then act as second messengers in two ways: t
hey can influence enzymatic and other cellular activities directl
y, or they can bind to calcium-bonding proteins.
• Upon binding calcium, calmodulin is able to modulate protein k
inase within the cell.
• Examples of hormones that use calcium ions as a second messe
nger system include angiotensin II, and growth-hormone releasi
ng hormone (GHRH).

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FACTORS AFFECTING
TARGET CELL RESPON
SE
Factors Affecting Target Cell Response
• There are several other factors that influence the target cell res
ponse.
• For example, the presence of a significant level of a hormone cir
culating in the bloodstream can cause its target cells to decreas
e their number of receptors for that hormone, in a process calle
d downregulation.
• When the level of a hormone is chronically reduced, target cells
engage in upregulation.
• Cells can also alter the sensitivity of the receptors themselves t
o various hormones.
Factors Affecting Target Cell Response

• There are three common interactions between two or mor

e hormones that affect the response of cells.

1 . The permissive effect

2 . The synergistic effect
3 . The antagonistic effect
Factors Affecting Target Cell Response

1 . Permissive Effect
- It is the type of interaction in which the presence of one
hormone enables another hormone to act.

Ex. Thyroid hormones have permissive relationships with ce

rtain reproductive hormones.
Factors Affecting Target Cell Response

2. Synergistic Effect
- Two hormones with similar effects produce an amplified r
esponse.

Ex. Two different reproductive hormones-FSH from the pitu

itary gland and estrogens from the ovaries.
Factors Affecting Target Cell Response

3. Antagonistic Effect
- Two hormones which have opposing effects.

Ex. Effect of two pancreatic hormones, namely insulin and g

lucagon.
REGULATION OF
HORMONE SECRETION
Regulation of Hormone Secretion
Balancing hormone production and degradation

Role of Feedback Loops

• Govern the initiation and m
aintenance of most hormon
e secretion in response to v
arious stimuli

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Types of Feedback Loops

Negative Feedback Loo

Positive Feedback Loop p
Release of additional hormone in response to Inhibition of further secretion of a hormone in
an original hormone release response to adequate levels of that hormone
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ENDOCRINE GLAND
STIMULI
Its Role
Endocrine Gland Stimuli
Reflexes triggered by both chemical and neural stimuli control endocrine activity.

Response to changes in blood levels of non-hormone chemi

Humoral Stimuli cals, such as nutrients or ions.

Hormonal Stimu Releases hormones in response to another hormone

li

Releases hormones in response to neural activity from the n

Neural Stimuli ervous system

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END OF PART 1
Any Questions?

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