ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

CHEMICAL MESSENGERS
– allow cells to communicate with each other to regulate body activities.
Four Classes of Chemical Messengers: (based on source & mode of transport)
1. Autocrine – stimulates the cell that originally secreted it, and sometimes nearby cells of same type
(ex: WBC)
2. Paracrine – local messengers secreted by one cell type but affect neighboring cells of different
type; do not travel in circulation but secreted into extracellular fluid (ex: histamine)
3. Neurotransmitter – secreted by neurons to activate another neuron, muscle cell or glandular cell;
secreted into a synaptic cleft (ex: acetylcholine)
4. Endocrine – secreted into bloodstream by certain glands & cell; affect cells distant from source
(ex: epinephrine)
 MAIN REGULATORY FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM:

1. Metabolism 6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation

2. Control of food intake & digestion 7. Control of blood glucose & other nutrients
3. Tissue development 8. Control of reproductive functions
4. Ion regulation 9. Uterine contractions & milk release
5. Water balance 10. Immune system regulation
Endocrine System – includes glands & specialized endocrine
cells that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Hormone – a chemical messenger that is secreted into the
blood, travels to a distant target tissue, & binds to specific
receptors to produce a coordinated set of events in that target
tissue.
 CHEMICAL NATURE OF HORMONES:

1. Lipid-Soluble Hormones – nonpolar; include steroid hormones, thyroid hormones,

and fatty acid derivatives hormones, such as eicosanoids.
✔ Small molecules; insoluble in water-based fluids (plasma); therefore, attached to
binding proteins for transport through bloodstream & protection of hormones
✔ Degraded slowly & not rapidly eliminated from circulation; life span ranges from days
to several weeks
✔ Breakdown products are excreted via urine or bile
2. Water-Soluble Hormones – polar; includes protein, peptide, & most amino acids
derivative hormones
✔ Many circulate as free hormones; large molecules diffuse from blood into tissue spaces
slowly; small molecules attached to binding protein to avoid being filtered out
✔ Regulate activities that have rapid onset and short duration
✔ Relatively short half-lives due to rapid degradation of enzymes (proteases) within
bloodstream; hormone breakdown products are then excreted in urine; however, some
hormones have chemical modifications, such as adding of carbohydrate groups, which
prolongs their life span.
 TYPES OF STIMULI REGULATING THE HORMONE RELEASE:
Stimuli in Control Stimulation
Humoral Stimuli directly by blood-borne chemicals to hormones
that are sensitive to blood levels of particular
substances (insulin)
Neural Stimuli stimulated by action potential, releasing
neurotransmitter from neurons into synapse with
cell producing hormones epinephrine)
Neuropeptide – chemical messengers secreted
by neurons directly to blood
Releasing Hormones – specialized
neuropeptides that stimulate hormone secretion
from other endocrine cells
Hormonal Stimuli hormone is secreted to stimulate the secretion
of other hormones (tropic hormones of anterior
pituitary gland)
Inhibition
Companion hormones
– secreted with release of humoral
stimuli; oppose the effect of
secreted hormone & counteract its
actions (glucagon)
neurons inhibit target by releasing
inhibitory neurotransmitter causing
the target endocrine
gland to not secrete its hormone
common mode; release of
hormones to prevent secretion of
other hormones (inhibiting
hormones from hypothalamus
prevent the secretion of tropic
hormones)
 MAJOR MECHANISM THAT MAINTAIN
HORMONE LEVELS IN BLOOD:
▪ Negative Feedback: prevents further hormone secretion once a set point is achieved
▪ Positive Feedback: self-promoting system whereby the stimulation of hormone secretion
increases over time
• Receptors – proteins where the hormones bind
• Receptor Site – location on cell where hormone binds; each characteristic allow only a
specific type of
• hormone to bind it
• Specificity – tendency for each type of hormone to bind to one type of receptor
 CLASSES OF RECEPTORS:
1. Nuclear Receptors – often found in cell nucleus where the lipid-soluble hormones bind;
cannot respond immediately because it takes time to produce mRNA and the protein
▪ Hormone-Response Elements – fingerlike projections that recognize & bind specific
nucleotide sequence in DNA; found in receptors that bind to DNA
▪ Transcription Factor – forms from combination of hormone and its receptors
▪ The hormone-receptor complex activates genes, which in turn activate the DNS to produce
mRNA.
▪ The mRNA increases the synthesis of certain proteins that produce the target cell’s response.
2. Membrane-Bound Receptors – proteins that extend across the cell membrane where
water-soluble hormones bind; with hormone-binding sites exposed on cell membrane’s outer
surface.
▪ Activate responses in two ways:
o Alter the activity of G proteins (α, β, and γ) at the inner surface of cell membrane
✔ the α subunit of G protein can bind to ion channels & cause them to open or change
the rate of synthesis of intracellular mediators, such as cAMP
o Alter the activity of intracellular enzymes directly
▪ These activations elicit second messengers that activates the cellular response referred to
as second-messenger systems which act rapidly because they act on already existing
enzymes
▪ Has a signal amplification which means that a single hormone activates many second
messengers, each of which activates enzymes that produce enormous amount of final product
Pituitary Gland / Hypophysis – small gland that rests in sella turcica which is controlled
by hypothalamus; connected to hypothalamus by infundibulum; divided into two parts:
1. Anterior Pituitary – made of epithelium from embryonic oral cavity ▪ Secretions are
controlled by hormones that pass through Hypothalamic-Pituitary Portal System
(capillary beds and veins that transport the releasing and inhibiting hormones)
2. Posterior Pituitary – extension of brain & composed of nerve cells
▪ Hormone secreted are controlled by action potentials carried by axons that pass from the
hypothalamus (Direct Innervation)
Thyroid Gland – made up of two lobes connected by isthmus; located on each side of
trachea & highly vascular
✔ Function: To secrete thyroid hormones which bind to nuclear receptors in cells &
regulate rate of metabolism
✔ Thyroid hormones are synthesized and stored within thyroid follicles and attached to
thyroglobulin
✔ Parafollicular cells / C cells secrete the calcitonin
✔ Hormones are regulated by TSH-releasing hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus &
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from anterior pituitary gland
CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH THYROID GLANDS:
Goiter – enlargement of thyroid gland; can develop from too low iodine in diet or excess in TSH

▪ Hypothyroidism – lack of thyroid hormones

o Cretinism: hypothyroidism that occurs in infant which is characterized by mental retardation,
short stature, and abnormally formed skeletal structures
o Myxedema: occurs in adults; characterized by extremely lethargic, having a hard time
performing routine task, and accumulation of fluid & other molecules in subcutaneous tissue of skin

▪ Hyperthyroidism – elevated rate of thyroid hormones secretion that causes increased metabolic rate,
extreme nervousness, & chronic fatigue
o Graves’ Disease: an autoimmune disease that causes hyperthyroidism; occurs when immune
system produces abnormal proteins that are similar in structure & function to TSH, over-stimulating
thyroid gland
✔ Exophthalmia – bulging of the eyes associated with Graves’ disease
Parathyroid Glands – four tiny glands embedded in posterior wall of thyroid glands;
release parathyroid hormone (PTH) which is considered more important the calcitonin in
Ca2+ regulation
 CONDITIONS ASSOCIATED WITH
PARATHYROID GLANDS:
▪ Hyperparathyroidism – abnormally high rate of PTH secretion
usually caused by tumor in the gland; results to easily fractured
bones, fatigue, muscle weakness, and kidney stones
▪ Hypoparathyroidism – abnormally low rate of PTH secretion;
may result from injury or surgical removal of thyroid &
parathyroid glands; characterized by frequent muscle cramps &
tetanus
Adrenal Glands – two small glands located superior to each kidney; divided
into adrenal medulla & adrenal cortex
Pancreas – has of pancreatic islets (islet of Langerhans) which consist of three cell types
that are vital in regulation of blood levels of glucose:
▪ Alpha Cells – secrete glucagon
▪ Beta Cells – secrete insulin
▪ Delta Cells – secrete somatostatin
EFFECTS OF INSULIN AND GLUCAGON ON
TARGET TISSUES:
Somatostatin – response to food intake; inhibits secretion of insulin & glucagon; also inhibits gastric
tract activity.
Conditions associated with Pancreas:
▪ Acidosis – reduced pH of body fluids below normal; associated with breakdown of lipids releasing
enough fatty acids & ketones when blood glucose levels are very low
▪ Hyperglycemia – very high blood glucose levels
▪ Diabetes Mellitus (DM) – inability to regulate blood glucose levels within normal range; results of
exaggerated appetite, excess urine production, dehydration, thirst, & fatigue; has two types:
o Type 1 DM: occurs when too little insulin is secreted from pancreas
o Type 2 DM: caused by either too few insulin receptors or defective receptors (do not respond
normally to insulin) on target cells
▪ Insulin Shock – too much insulin is present in blood; occurs when a diabetic injected too much
insulin or has not eaten after an insulin injection; may result to disorientation, convulsion, & loss of
consciousness
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS – Include testes in males & ovaries in females;
hormone release is stimulated by LH & FSH
THYMUS – Lies in upper part of thorax; most important early in life for normal
development of immune system in infant
PINEAL GLAND – Small, pinecone-shaped structure located in thalamus;
play an important role in the onset of puberty
 OTHER HORMONES:

1. Hormones secreted by cells in lining of stomach & small intestine

– stimulate the production of digestive juices from stomach, pancreas,
& liver
✔ secretion occurs when food is present in digestive system
✔ hormones from small intestine help in regulation of rate at which food passes
(stomach into the intestine)
2. Prostaglandin – intercellular signal that are widely distributed in body & play a role in
inflammation
✔ released by damaged tissues causing blood vessel dilation, localized swelling, & pain
✔ causes relaxation of smooth muscles (ex: dilation of blood vessels) & contraction of smooth
muscles (ex: uterine contraction during delivery); medically used to induce abortion
✔ produced by platelets for normal blood clotting
✔ aspirin – inhibits prostaglandin synthesis
3. Atrial Natriuretic Hormone (ANH) / Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) –
secreted by right atrium of heart in response to elevated blood pressure; inhibits
Na+ reabsorption in kidneys resulting to more urine to be excreted
4. Erythropoietin – secreted in response to reduced oxygen levels in kidneys;
acts on bone marrow to increase production of RBC
5. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG) – similar in structure & function of LH;
secreted by placenta to maintain pregnancy & stimulate breast development
 DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM:
Condition Description
Diabetes Insipidus due to lack of ADH; results in excessive urination
Hashimoto Thyroiditis is decreased; weight gain is possible, and activity levels are
depressed
Primary 90% of cases due to adenoma of parathyroid gland; causes blood
Hyperparathyroidism PTH levels to increase above normal; elevated blood Ca2+ levels,
weakened bones & possible muscular weakness

Addison Disease low levels of aldosterone & cortisol from adrenal cortex; low blood
Na+ levels, low blood pressure, & excessive urination
Gestational Diabetes develops in pregnant women due to actions of human placental
lactogen (HPL); in some women, HPL overly desensitizes the
woman’s insulin receptors; causes elevated blood glucose levels in
the mother, and if left untreated, excessive fetal growth
 EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM:
▪ Gradual decrease in growth hormone in people who do not exercise
melatonin, reproductive hormones, thymosin, and thyroid hormones (slight
decrease).
▪ Parathyroid hormones increase if vitamin D and Ca2+ decrease.
▪ There is an increase in type 2 diabetes mellitus in people with a familial
tendency.