ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES
● Define the endocrine system and explain its general function.

● Explain; How does the endocrine system maintain the Homeostasis in the
body.

● Explain the relationship between nervous system and endocrine system.

● Distinguish Between endocrine and exocrine glands.

● Define the term hormone and explain its function and number its types.

● Describe the mechanisms of steroids and non-steroids hormone action.

● Explain the regulation and transmitters of hormones.

● Describe the types, function, location of the glands, and their effects
during oversecretion or undersecretion on the body.
 General Principles – The Central Endocrine Glands
1. General Principles of Endocrinology
 Overal functions of endocrine system
 Tropic hormones
 Complexity of endocrine function
 Factors affecting & means of plasma hormone regulation
 Types of endocrine disorders
 Regulation of target organ responsiveness
2. Hypothalamus and Pituitary
 Hypothalamus – posterior pituitary relationship
 Vasopressin, oxytocin
 Hypothalamus – anterior pituitary relationship
 Anterior pituitary and hypophysiotropic hormones
3. Endocrine control of Growth
 Factors influencing growth
 Direct metabolic functions of growth hormone
 Bone growth
 Role of other hormones in growth
4. Pineal Gland and Circadian Rhythms
 Suprachiasmic nucleus as the master biological clock
 Functions of Melatonin
 General Principles – The Peripheral Endocrine Glands
1. Thyroid Gland
 Anatomy of the thyroid gland
 Thyroid hormones
2. Adrenal Glands
 Anatomy of the adrenal gland
 Adrenocortical mineralocorticoids
 Adrenocorticoid glucocorticoids
 Adrenocortical sex hormones
 Adrenal medullary
3. Endocrine control of fuel metabolism
 Metabolisn, anabolism, catabolism
 Energy storage
 Absorptive and postabsorptive states
 Endocrine pancreas – insulin and glucagon
 Metabolic effects of other hormones
4. Endocrine control of calcium metabolism
 Calcium homeostasis
 Bone remodeling
 Parathyroid hormone
 Calcitonin
 Vitamin D
 DEFINITION OF ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones
that regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function,
sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood, among other things.

The word endocrine derives from the Greek words "endo,"

meaning within, and "crinis," meaning to secrete.

Although the hormones circulate throughout the body, each

type of hormone is targeted toward certain organs and tissues.
 THE GENERAL
FUNCTION
➢ The endocrine system gets
some help from organs such
as the kidney, liver, heart and
gonads, which have secondary
endocrine functions.

○ The kidney, for example,

secretes hormones such
as erythropoietin and
renin.
How does the endocrine system maintains
the
HOMEOSTASIS?
Homeostasis is happening constantly in our bodies. We eat, sweat, drink,
dance, eat and yet our body composition remains almost the same. If
someone were to draw your blood on ten different days of a month, the
level of glucose, sodium, red blood cells and other blood components
would be pretty much constant, regardless of your behavior (assuming
fasting before drawing blood, of course).
How does the endocrine system maintains the
homeostasis ?

These hormones are sent via the blood to specific spots in the body to
control things like blood sugar, heart rate, etc.T.he Endocrine system is
responsible for homeostasis. The Endocrine system secrete hormones that
the body needs to perform certain functions.
How does the endocrine system maintains
the homeostasis ?
● When glands create hormones, they get transported through either
the bloodstream or the lymph.
● Hormones help the body to act or react to any threat to
homeostasis. Hormones aid throughout reproduction and birth.
● They help people sleep and wake up.
● The adrenal glands give off adrenaline to help a person perform in
potential danger, and they release dopamine linked with the body's
reward system.
● In general, the endocrine system plays a major role in helping the body
maintain homeostasis because it gives off the messengers to help the body
to react to any threats to homeostasis
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NERVOUS SYSTEM & ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM.

● The Nervous system & Endocrine system are both essential to

the communication and relay of messages throughout the
body.

● They work together to regulate(Homeostasis) the activities

of the other systems.

● Both systems use chemical signals when they respond

to changes that might alter (Homeostasis).
 Feature Nervous System Endocrine System

Chemical
Signals Electric impulses
impulses
(hormones)

Pathways Transmission by neurons Transported by blood

Speed of information fast slow

Duration of effect Short lived Long lived

EXAMPLE
:
In a fight or flight response, there is a coordination of both the nervous and endocrine
systems. The nervous system detects stimuli, either inside or out, for example, danger
like an oncoming car about to run someone over, and that in turn sends an impulse to
the endocrine system where a response is carried out. The response in this case is the
release of adrenaline into the bloodstream, by the endocrine glands called adrenal
glands. Once in the bloodstream, this hormone can cause the heart rate to increase, the
muscles to become ready to either react to an emergency situation by fighting or by
flight
 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
ENDOCRINE AND EXOCRINE
GLANDS
ENDOCRINE GLAND: a gland that secretes hormones directly
into the bloodstream; a ductless gland.

EXOCRINE GLAND: a gland that secretes substances into ducts

which then leave the body (i.e. sweat/sebaceous glands) or into an
internal space or lumen (i.e. digestive glands).

★ Exocrine glands are not part of the endocrine system!

 DEFINITION OF
HORMONES
Hormones are chemical substances that act like messenger molecules
in the body. After being made in one part of the body, they travel to
other parts of the body where they help control how cells and organs
do their work.
Important Functions of hormones
include
● Growth and development of Prompting cell or tissue
● Food metabolism
● Initiating and maintaining sexual development and
reproduction
● Maintaining body temperature
● Controlling thirst
● Regulating mood and cognitive functioning
 TYPES OF
HORMONES
Hormones are classified by various criteria:
•By Proximity of their site of synthesis to their site of
action.

•By their chemical structure.

•By their degree of solubility in aqueous medium.

3 classes of hormones based on proximity of site
of Synthesis to Site of Action:

1. Autocrine Hormones: those that act on the same cells

that synthesize them.
2. Paracrine Hormones: those that are synthesized very close
to their site of action.
3. Endocrine Hormones: those that are synthesized by
endocrine glands and transported in the blood to target
cells that contain the appropriate receptors.
4 classes of hormones based on chemical
structure:
1. Peptides or Protein hormones:
made of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
most hormones belong to this group except hormones secreted by the
gonads (testis and ovary) and the adrenal cortex.

Examples:
•Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH), made up of three amino
acid residues.
•Insulin, made up of 51 amino acid residues.
2. Steroid hormones.
● made of fatty acids using cholesterol as a functional
group.
● only hormones secreted by the gonads and adrenal
cortex belong to this group .
3.Amino acid derivatives.

4.Fatty acid derivatives.

 Two classes of hormones based on solubility in
aqueous medium:-
1. Hydrophilic Hormones.
•Hormones that are soluble in aqueous medium.
•They cannot cross the cell membrane.
Examples: Insulin, Glucagon,
Epinephrine.
2. Lipophilic
Hormones.
● Hormones that are not soluble in aqueous medium, but soluble
in lipid
● They can easily cross the cell membrane,
Examples: Thyroid hormones, Steroid hormones

● Location of receptors for each class of hormone is

different.
 MECHANISM OF
HORMONES
As there are huge variety of hormones , there are two mechanism by
which hormone trigger changes in cells.
They are :
● Direct Gene Activation
● Second-Messenger System
Direct Gene
Activation .
● Steroid hormones use the mechanism of direct gene expression because they
are lipid-soluble molecules.

● First, they diffuse through the plasma membranes of their target cells into
their nucleus .

● Then they binds to a specific hormone receptor it then further binds to

specific sites on the cell's DNA

● Which activates certain genes to transcribe messenger RNA . it then translates

in the cytoplasm

● Resulting in the synthesis of new protein .

Second-Messenger
System
● Water soluble and non-steroid hormones are unable to enter targeted cells so
they bind to hormone receptor.
● Which is situated on target cell's plasma membrane and utilize a second
-messenger system.
● The hormone binds to the membrane receptor and activated receptor sets off
a series of reaction that activates an enzyme
● The enzyme in turn, catalyze reactions that produce second messenger
molecules also known as cAMP.
● This promotes typical response of the target cell to hormone.
Hormone Regulation:
Feedback
Mechanisms
Most hormones are regulated by feedback mechanisms. A
feedback mechanism is a loop in which a product feeds back
to control its own production
Negativefeedback occurs when a product feeds back to
.decrease its own production
Positive feedback occurs when a product feeds back to
increase its own production
 CONTROL OF HORMONE
RELEASE
Endocrine Gland Stimuli
The stimuli that activate the endocrine organs fall into
three major categories—hormonal, humoral, and neural
 HORMONAL
STIMULI
The most common stimulus
is a hormonal stimulus, in which endocrine
organs are prodded into action by other
hormone
 HUMORAL
STIMULI
Changing blood levels of certain
ions and nutrients may also
stimulate hormone release
 NEURAL
STIMULI
In isolated cases, nerve fibers stimulate hormone release,
and the target cells are said to respond to neural stimuli.
The classic example is sympathetic nervous system
stimulation of the adrenal medulla to release
norepinephrine and epinephrine during periods of stress
 HORMONE TRANSPORT IN
BLOOD
Hormones flow through the blood and then bind to
their receptors within the capillaries or diffuse out to
reach the receptors at the target cell.

Water insoluble hormones must bind to plasma protein to be

carried into the plasma, hormones remain bind to these
protein for some time which act as a reservoir for the
hormones.

Water soluble hormones which can dissolve into the plasma

by itself and can easily diffuse out to their site of action.
Water soluble hormones act faster in a short period of time.
 THE PITUITARY
Definition: GLAND
The main endocrine gland. It is a small structure in
the brain. The pituitary gland is about the size of a
bean, and it hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus.
It is called the master gland because it produces
hormones that control other glands and many body
functions including growth. The pituitary consists of
the anterior and posterior pituitary.
The pituitary glands are made of the anterior lobe
and posterior lobe. The anterior lobe produces and
releases hormones. The posterior lobe does not
produce its own hormones —this is done by nerve
cells in the hypothalamus—but it does store & release
them into the circulation.
 The Anterior
Pituitary
The anterior lobe releases hormones upon receiving releasing or inhibiting
hormones from the hypothalamus. These hypothalamic hormones tell the
anterior lobe whether to release more of a specific hormone or stop production
of the hormone.

Anterior Lobe Hormones:

● Growth hormone (GH): GH is essential in early years to maintaining a
healthy body composition and for growth in children. In adults, it aids
healthy bone and muscle mass (increases bone and muscle growth) . It
also affects fat distribution and increases protein synthesis.
● Prolactin (PRL): Prolactin stimulates breast milk production
after childbirth.
● Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): FSH works with LH to ensure
normal functioning and development of the ovaries and testes. It
stimulates the production of egg and sperm.

● Luteinizing hormone (LH): LH works with FSH to ensure normal

functioning of the ovaries and testes. It triggers ovulation in females
and stimulates testosterone production in male.

● Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): ACTH stimulates the

adrenal glands to produce hormones.

● Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): TSH stimulates the thyroid

gland to produce hormones.
 The Posterior
Pituitary
The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis) comprises the posterior lobe of
the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system.
The posterior lobe contains the ends of nerve cells coming from the
hypothalamus. The hypothalamus sends hormones directly to the posterior
lobe via these nerves, and then the pituitary gland releases them.

Posterior Lobe Hormones:

● Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Antidiuretic hormone, also known as
vasopressin, acts to maintain blood pressure, blood volume and tissue
water content by controlling the amount of water and hence the
concentration of urine excreted by the kidney.This hormone prompts the
kidneys to increase water absorption in the blood.
● Oxytocin: Oxytocin is involved in a variety of processes, such as
contracting the uterus during childbirth and stimulating breast milk
production.
Hypersecretion- Too much of any hormone secreted into the body is
usually caused by a secretory pituitary gland tumor.

● Secretory tumors produce too much prolactin (the hormone that

triggers milk production in new mothers), which leads to infertility,
discharge from breasts and menstrual abnormality.
● Some tumors may affect the adrenal glands, due to oversecretion
of hormones, which stimulates them and cause a hormone
imbalance.
● Tumors can also make excess of growth hormone which stimulate the
thyroid gland, leading to overproduction of the thyroid
hormone.Oversecretion of the pituitary hormone human growth
hormone can cause gigantism if it occurs before growth of the long
bones is complete, or acromegaly if it begins during adulthood.
Hyposecretion
-
● Hormones secreted in less amount in the body are commonly
caused by a non-secretory pituitary gland tumor, which
interferes with the ability of the normal pituitary gland to
create hormones.
● It can, however, also be caused by a large secretory tumor.
● Hyposecretion can also happen with surgery or radiation
therapy for a pituitary gland tumor.
● Undersecretion of human growth hormone can lead to dwarfism
if experienced during childhood, and decreased endocrine
function accompanied by lethargy and loss of sexual capacity in
the adult.
 THE PINEAL
GLAND
Definition: The pineal gland, also known as the
"pineal body," is a small endocrine gland.
Location: It is located on the back portion of
the third cerebral ventricle of the brain, which
is a fluid-filled space in the brain. This gland
lies in-between the two halves of the brain.
The gland is named for its shape, which
resembles a pinecone (in Latin, "pinea").
 THE PINEAL
Functions: GLAND
 The pineal gland's function in the body is not clearly understood yet.
 However, it is known to play a role in regulating female reproduction
and sexual maturation.
 It also has a part in controlling circadian rhythms (biological
processes), the body’s internal clock that affects such actions as when
we wake and sleep.
 The pinealocytes create and secrete melatonin, a hormone that helps
maintain the body’s internal clock.
 Melatonin also helps regulate female reproductive hormones,
 THE PINEAL
GLAND
Oversecretion:
 The main consequences of swallowing large amounts of
melatonin are drowsiness and reduced core body temperature
 Very large doses have effects on the performance of the
human reproductive system (delay in sexual maturation).

Undersecretion:
 Reduced melatonin production is not known to have any
effect on health.
 THYROID
Location : GLAND
The thyroid gland is located at the base of the
throat, just inferior to the Adam’s apple.

Structure :

It is a fairly large gland consisting of two lobes

joined by a central mass, or isthmus .

Hormons :

● Thyroid hormone (thyroxine [T4]

and triiodothyronine [T3]) .
● calcitonin
 THYROID
GLAND
Thyroid gland is composed of hollow
structures called follicles , which store a sticky
colloidal material.

Thyroid hormone is derived from this colloid.

But calcitonin hormone is made by the
parafollicular cells found in the connective
tissue between the follicles .
 THYROID
GLAND
Thyroxine (T4): is the major hormone secreted by the thyroid follicles.
Triiodothyronine (T3): is formed at the target tissues by conversion of thyroxine
to triiodothyronine.
Each is constructed from two tyrosine amino acids linked together, but thyroxine
has four bound iodine atoms, whereas triiodothyronine has three .

Function :
● It is the body’s metabolic hormone
● Thyroid hormone controls the rate at which glucose is “burned,” or oxidized,
and converted to body heat and chemical energy.
● necessary for normal growth and development.
Hyperthyroidis
m
Excessive levels of thyroid hormones in the blood

Graves' disease : is an immune system disorder where the thyroid

gland enlarges and the eyes may bulge, or protrude anteriorly , high
basal metabolic rate, intolerance of heat, rapid heartbeat, weight loss,
nervous and agitated behavior, and a general inability to relax.
Hyporthyroidis
m
l ow levels of thyroid hormones in the blood

Myxedema
which is characterized by both
physical and mental
sluggishness
,Other signs are puffiness of
the face, fatigue, poor muscle
tone, low body temperature
(the person is always cold),
goiter :It is an enlargement of
the thyroid gland that
Cretinism : it results in
results when the diet is
dwarfism in which adult
deficient in iodine.
body proportions remain
childlike.
Calcitonin
hormone :
● made by the so-called parafollicular cells found in the connective tissue between
the follicles

● decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium to be deposited in the bones.

● It acts antagonistically to parathyroid hormone (PTH)

● It is released directly to the blood in response to increasing levels of blood

calcium.
 PARATHYROID GLANDS

● The parathyroid glands are four small

glands located on the posterior aspect
of the thyroid gland.

● Low blood levels of calcium stimulate the

parathyroid glands to release parathyroid
hormone (PTH). It causes bone calcium
to be liberated into the blood.

● PTH also stimulates the kidneys

and intestine to absorb more
 PARATHYROID GLANDS
● Hyposecretion of PTH results
in: tetany:
If blood calcium levels fall too low, neurons become
extremely irritable and overactive. They deliver
impulses to the muscles so rapidly that the muscles
go into uncontrollable spasms (tetany), which may
be fatal.

● Hypersecretion leads to extreme bone

wasting and fractures.
 HYPOTHALAMU
S
The hypothalamus is a secretion of the brain responsible for the production
of many of the body's essential hormones .It's not an endocrine gland but
regulates the secretion of some pituitary gland hormones.

Location:
The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and above
the pituitary gland and brain stem
Functions of
hypothalamus
● The primary function of the hypothalamus is
homeostasis

● The hypothalamus govern temperature

regulation

● The hypothalamus also governs thirst and

hunger

● It also governs sleep, mood, and blood

pressure
 PANCREAS
The pancreas is a large gland that lies alongside the stomach and the small bowel.It
is divided into the head, body and tail.

Functions of the pancreas

 It makes digestive juices, which consists of powerful

enzyme.

 It makes hormones that control blood glucose levels

Primary hormones secreted by the pancreas
include:

● Gastrin: this hormone aids digestion by stimulating certain cells

● Glucagon: this helps insulin maintain normal blood glucose by working in

the opposite way of insulin

● Insulin: this hormone regulates blood glucose by allowing many body cells
to absorb and use glucose
Diseases and disorders of the
pancreas
1. Type 1 diabetes
2. Type 2 diabetes
complications
● Hyperglycemic coma
● Hypoglycemic coma
 GONAD
S
● The female and male gonads produce sex cells (an
exocrine function).
● They also produce sex hormones that are identical to
those produced by adrenal cortex cells.
● The major differences from the adrenal sex hormone
production are the source and relative amounts of
hormones produced.
 OVARIES

● The female sex organ that serves as an endocrine gland

● The female gonads or ovaries, are paired, almond-
sized organs located in the pelvic cavity.
● Ovaries produce female sex cells ( ova or eggs) and two
groups of steroids hormones estrogens and
progesterone.
PRODUCTION

● An ovarian follicle (and ovum) start to mature each month following

puberty under the influence of FSH (Follicle-stimulating
hormone ) .The developing follicle secretes estrogen

● Luteinizing hormone (LH) causes the follicle to rupture and release

the ovum (ovulation); the follicle becomes the corpus luteum. The
corpus luteum secretes progesterone
FUNCTIONS

➢ ESTROGENS

a)The estrogens are responsible for the development of sex characteristics in

women (primarily growth and maturation of the reproductive organs)and
the appearance of secondary sex characteristics (hair in the pubic and
axillary regions)at puberty.

b)Acting with progesterone, estrogens promote breast development and cyclic

changes in the uterine lining (the menstrual cycle).
FUNCTIONS

➢ PROGESTERONES

a) Progesterone as already noted, acts with estrogen to bring about

the menstrual cycle.

b)During pregnancy, it quiets the muscles of the uterus so that an implanted

embryo will not be aborted and helps prepare breast tissue for lactation
 HYPOSECRETION AND HYPERSECRETION OF OVARIAN
HORMONES

❖ Hyposecretion of the ovarian hormones severely

hampers a woman’s ability to conceive and bear children

❖ Extreme hypersecretion of ovarian hormones by the ovaries is a

rare clinical entity, because excessive secretion of estrogens
automatically decreases the production of gonadotropins by the
pituitary, and this limits the production of ovarian hormones.
 TESTES
● The male sex organ that also serves as an endocrine gland
● The paired oval testes of the male are suspended in a sac, the scrotum,
outside the pelvic cavity.
● Testes produce male sex cells or sperm and male sex hormones testosterone

PRODUCTION

● FSH( follicle-stimulating hormone) causes the production of sperm

● LH causes the production of testosterone
FUNCTIONS

TESTOSTERONE

● At puberty, testosterone promotes the growth and maturation of the

reproductive system organs to prepare the young man for
reproduction.
● It also causes the male’s secondary sex characteristics (growth of facial hair,
development of heavy bones and muscles, and lowering of the voice) to
appear and stimulates the male sex drive.
● In adults, testosterone is necessary for continuous production of sperm.
 HYPOSECRETION OF
TESTOSTERONE
Leads to a lack of male sex characteristics.There are two types:
● Primary:
This type of hypogonadism (also known as primary testicular failure) originates from
a problem in the testicles.
Examples: Klinefelter Syndrome, Mumps Orchitis, hemachromatosis

● Secondary:
This type indicates a problem in the Hypothalamus or the pituitary gland.

In cases of hyposecretion, the man becomes sterile; such cases are usually treated
by testosterone injections.
 ADRENAL
GLANDS
Location: They are flat pyramidal shaped, curved over the top of each kidney.

Structure: Although it looks like a single organ, they are actually two endocrine
organs; Adrenal Medulla and Adrenal Cortex.

Hormones:
● Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released by adrenal medulla.
● 3 classes of hormones are released by the adrenal cortex;
Mineralocorticoids, Glucocorticoids and sex hormones.
Function of Adrenal cortex
hormones
Hormones of Adrenal cortex are collectively called corticosteroids.
1. Mineralocorticoids: (mainly Aldosterone).
● Regulares the mineral ( or salt) content of the blood.
● Their target is the kidney tubules.
● When aldosterone is released, Na+ions are reabsorbed and K+are released into
the urine.
● When Na+are reabsorbed, water is reabsorbed too(osmosis).
● In this way, blood volume and B.P are adjusted.
2. Glucocorticoids:(corticosterone, cortisone but mainly
cortisol)
● Maintain normal cell metabolism.
● Promote Protein breakdown, lipolysis and gluconeogenesis.
● Helps the body fight long term stressors.
● When glucocorticoids are released, fats and even proteins are broken down
to glucose.
● Anti-Inflammatory: Inhibit WBC hence they slow down wound healing.
● Depression of Immune system: High doses can depress immune response
hence they are prescribed during organ transplant.
3. Sex hormones: (or
Androgens)
● In both male and female Androgens are released but in relatively small
quantities.
● Mainly testosterone, but some estrogen is also produced.
● In females after menopause, ovarian secretion of estrogen ceases and all estrogen
is derived from adrenal androgens.
Function of Adrenal Medulla
hormones
1. Epinephrine: (Adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
● Enhances and prolongs the effects of “ fight or flight” response of the
sympathetic nervous system
● Increases Heart rate, B.P, Blood glucose level and dilate small passageways of
the lungs.
● These events result in more oxygen and faster circulation of blood, mainly to
brain, heart and muscles.
Regulatio
n
● Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released when adrenal medulla is stimulated
by the sympathetic nervous system during “fight or flight” response.
● Glucocorticoids are released from adrenal cortex in response to rising levels of
ACTH in blood. Acth is secreted from the anterior pituitary lobe by the release
of CRF from hypothalamus, which is controlled by steroid level in blood.
● Aldosterone release is stimulated by humoral factors, such as fewer Na+ions
in blood.

-Renin from kidneys also causes release of aldosterone when Blood pressure
drops.
Deficiency of Adrenal cortex
hormones of all adrenal cortex hormones leads to
Under-secretion
Addison’s disease.
Because of low aldosterone, Na+ and water all lost from the body,
leading to:
● Electrolyte and water imbalance
● Muscle weakness
● Hypoglycemia
● Arrhythmia
● Lessened ability to, cope with stress. Eg.cold, which is normally easy
to overcome, become life threatening.
Oversecretion of Adrenal cortex
hormones: may results from a tumor of Pituitary of Adrenal
Hypersecretion
cortex.
Hyperactivity of the outermost cortical area results
in Hyperaldosteronism.
When tumor is in the middle cortical area, Cushing’s
syndrome results.Excessive glucocorticoids results in:
● ‘Buffalo hump’ on the upper back
● High blood pressure
● Hyperglycemia
● Bone weakness
● Severe depression of immune system.
Oversecretion of Adrenal Medulla
hormones: of epinephrine and norepinephrine leads to a
Hypersecretion
prolonged “ fight or flight response” including:
● Sweating
● High Blood pressure
● Increased heart rate
● High metabolism
● High Glucose.
 THYMUS
GLAND
Location:The thymus gland is located in
the thoracic cavity,
behind the sternum.
Hormones:Thymosin and other
hormones: Thymic humoral factor,
thymic factor and Thymopoietin.
Function of Thymus
gland:
Promotes the maturation of T-cells WBCs.

Other endocrine Tissues and

Organs:
Placenta:
● Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin.
● Estrogen and progesterone.
Kidney
•Renin -restore normal blood
pressure, thereby increasing filtration
rates of water and solutes in the
kidney tubules.
•Erythropoietin –stimulates
the production of red blood
cells,
Calcitriol- stimulates active transport
of dietary calcium across intestinal cell
Stomac
hGastrin –stimulates glands to release hydrochloric acid.
•

Intestine
•Secretin-Pancreas: stimulates release of bicarbonate-rich
juice. Liver: increases release of bile.
Stomach: reduces secretions and motility.
•Cholecystokinin-Pancreas: stimulates release of enzyme-rich
juice. Gallbladder: stimulates expulsion of stored bile.
Duodenal papilla: causes sphincter to relax, allowing bile and pancreatic
juice to enter duodenum.
Hear
tAtrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)-Kidney: inhibits sodium
•
ion reabsorption and renin release.
Adrenal cortex: inhibits secretion of aldosterone,
thereby decreasing blood volume and blood pressure.
Adipose tissues
•Leptin-suppresses appetite and increases energy
expenditure in the brain.
•Resistin-causes resistance of peripheral tissues to insulin.
THE END