3.

Kursusgang

Essentials A&P: Chap 4 (128-137, 147), 9 (328-341)

3.1. Endokrine væv

The Endocrine system and Hormone Function - An Overview (337-340 ind pdf)
Define hormone and target organ

A hormone is a chemical substance secreted by endocrine cells into the extracellular fluids
that regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in the body. Hormones play a crucial role in
various physiological processes, including growth and development, metabolism,
reproduction, and maintaining homeostasis. They act as signaling molecules, transmitting
information and instructions between different cells and organs in the body.

A target organ, also known as a target tissue or target cell, refers to a specific tissue or organ
in the body that is affected by a particular hormone. Hormones circulate through the
bloodstream and interact with target cells or organs that possess specific receptors for the
hormone. These receptors are usually located on the cell membrane or within the cell itself.
Once a hormone binds to its receptor on the target cell, it triggers a cascade of biochemical
reactions within the cell, leading to physiological responses that are characteristic of that
hormone's function. Each hormone typically has specific target organs or tissues where it
exerts its effects, although some hormones may have multiple target organs or tissues
throughout the body.

Endocrine system - As the second control system of the body, the endocrine system releases
chemicals called hormones that regulate complex body processes. Hormones released by endocrine
glands travel through the blood and alter the activity of target cells.
Hormones - are chemical substances secreted by endocrine cells into the extracellular fluids that
regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in the body. Nearly all hormones are amino acids or
steroids. Hormones can:
• Change plasma membrane permeability or membrane potential (electrical state) by opening or
closing ion channels
• Activate or inactive enzymes
• Stimulate or inhibit cell division
• Promote or inhibit secretion of a product
• Turn on or turn off transcription of certain genes (such as those encoding proteins or regulatory
molecules)
Target cells - hormones only affect target cells. A target cell to respond to a hormone, specific protein
receptors to which that hormone can attach must be present on the cell’s plasma membrane or in its
interior.
Direct gene activation - Because they are lipid-soluble molecules, the steroid hormones can diffuse
through the plasma membranes of their target cells. Once inside:
1. Once inside, the steroid hormone enters the nucleus
 2. and binds to a specific hormone receptor
3. The hormone-receptor complex then binds to specific sites on the cell’s DNA
4. activating certain genes to transcribe messenger RNA (mRNA)
5. The mRNA is translated in the cytoplasm
6. resulting in the synthesis of new proteins.
Define hormone and target organ
Second-messenger system - When not water-soluble and are unable to enter target cells directly they
bind to hormone receptors situated on the target cell’s plasma membrane. Steroid hormones can
influence cell activity either by direct gene activation or by the indirect pathway of activating a second
messenger.
Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release (p. 340-341 in pdf)
Explain how various endocrine glands are stimulated to release their hormonal products.
Hormonal Stimuli - in which endocrine organs are prodded into action by other hormones. Hormones
from the brain's hypothalamus tell the front part of the pituitary gland to release its own hormones.
These hormones from the pituitary gland then tell other hormone-producing organs in the body to
release their hormones into the bloodstream.
Humoral Stimuli - Changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients may also stimulate hormone
release.
Neural Stimuli - nerve fibers stimulate hormone release, and the endocrine cells are said to respond to
neural stimuli.
Define negative feedback, and describe its role in regulating blood levels of the various hormones.
Negative feedback -mechanisms are the chief means of regulating blood levels of nearly all
hormones. Is a regulatory mechanism in which the output of a system inhibits or counteracts changes
to the system, thereby maintaining stability or homeostasis.
The Major Endocrine Organs (p. 341-350 in pdf)
De vigtigste endokrine organer i kroppen inkluderer hypofysen, pinealkirtlen, skjoldbruskkirtlen,
biskjoldbruskkirtlerne, thymus, binyrerne, bugspytkirtlen og kønskirtlerne (æggestokkene og
testiklerne).
Describe the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands.
Endocrine glands - Produce hormones that they release into the blood or lymph. The endocrine
glands have a rich blood supply. Affect distant target cells or organs in the body.
Exocrine glands - release their products at the body’s surface (like skin) or into body cavities through
ducts.
On an appropriate diagram, identify the major endocrine glands and tissues.
List hormones produced by the endocrine glands, and discuss their general functions.
Pituitary Gland - is approximately the size of a pea. Hangs by a stalk from the inferior surface of the
hypothalamus of the brain. Despite its relatively small size, the anterior pituitary gland controls the
activity of so many other endocrine glands that it has often been called the “master endocrine gland.
The anterior pituitary is not as all-powerful as it might appear, because the release of each of its
hormones is controlled by releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones produced by the
hypothalamus.
Hypothalamus - The hypothalamus is a small region in the brain that regulates hormone release,
controls the autonomic nervous system, regulates body temperature, thirst, and hunger, manages the
sleep-wake cycle, and influences emotional responses. Also makes two additional hormones, oxytocin
and antidiuretic hormone, which are transported along the axons of the hypothalamic neurosecretory
cells to the posterior pituitary for storage.
Pineal Gland - The pineal gland is a small endocrine gland located in the brain, near the center and
behind the third ventricle. It primarily produces the hormone melatonin, which helps regulate the
sleep-wake cycle (circadian rhythm) and has antioxidant properties.
Thyroid Gland - The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the front of the
neck, just below the Adam's apple. It produces hormones, primarily thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3), which regulate metabolism, growth, and development throughout the body.
These hormones influence almost every organ system, including the heart, brain, muscles, and bones.
Parathyroid Gland - Are tiny masses of glandular tissue most often found on the posterior surface of
the thyroid gland. The parathyroids secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is the most important
regulator of calcium ion (Ca2+) homeostasis of the blood. When the blood calcium ion concentration
drops below a certain level, the parathyroids release PTH, which stimulates bone destruction cells
(osteoclasts) to break down bone matrix and release calcium ions into the blood.
Thymus - is located in the upper thorax, posterior to the sternum. Large in infants and children, it
decreases in size throughout adulthood. By old age, it is composed mostly of fibrous connective tissue
and fat. Development of a special group of white blood cells and immune response.
Adrenal Glands - The two adrenal glands curve over the top of the kidneys like triangular hats.
Adrenal Cortex: The outer layer of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex, produces steroid hormones
called corticosteroids. These hormones include cortisol, which helps regulate metabolism, immune
response, and stress response; aldosterone, which regulates electrolyte balance, particularly sodium
and potassium levels, and helps control blood pressure; and androgens, which are precursor hormones
involved in the development of male sex characteristics. Adrenal Medulla: The inner part of the
adrenal gland, the adrenal medulla, produces catecholamines, such as adrenaline (epinephrine) and
noradrenaline (norepinephrine). These hormones are involved in the body's fight-or-flight response to
stress, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy availability to prepare the body for action.

Discuss ways in which hormones promote body homeostasis by giving examples of hormonal actions.
Describe major pathological consequences of hypersecretion and hyposecretion of the hormones
considered in this chapter.

Histology: Chap 15 (524-526, 529-530, 532-533, 535-536, 542), 21 (784-792, 799-804, 808,
810-811), 18 (687-690).

3.2. Huden
The epidermis - is composed of a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium that grows continuously
but maintains its normal thickness by the process of desquamation. Epidermis is derived from
ectoderm.
The dermis - is composed of a dense connective tissue that imparts mechanical support, strength, and
thickness to the skin. Dermis is derived from mesoderm.
Hypodermis - contains variable amounts of adipose tissue arranged into lobules separated by
connective tissue.

Major functions of the skin include the following:

Barrier Function: It acts as a protective barrier against physical, chemical, and biological agents in
the external environment, including mechanical, permeability, and ultraviolet barriers.
Immunological Function: The skin provides immunological information obtained during antigen
processing to appropriate immune cells in the lymphatic tissue.
Homeostatic Regulation: It participates in homeostasis by regulating body temperature and water
loss.
Sensory Function: The skin conveys sensory information about the external environment to the
nervous system.
Endocrine Function: It performs endocrine functions by secreting hormones, cytokines, and growth
factors, and converting precursor molecules into hormonally active molecules, such as vitamin D3.
Excretory Function: The skin functions in excretion through the exocrine secretion of sweat, sebum
(oil), and apocrine glands.

Noter til undervisningen

Huden = Epidermis - bindevæv/dermis - beskyttende fedt
Forhindre fordampning af vand fra kroppen
Huden beskytter os mod evt. bakterier der gerne vil spise os

Kreatin er slidstærk. Beskytter mod kemiske stoffer. Holder mikrober (smp stoffer) ude.
Melanin i huden absorberer lys.

Epidermis - Øverste hudlag

Dermis -Har hud stamceller.
Hypodermis - har svedkirtler
Epidermis
Horny cell layer - består af døde hudceller. Udskiftes hver dag.
Granular cell - hudceller der er ved at dø.
Prickle cell layer- Her vokser cellerne stadig.
basal cell layer - stamceller, deler sig hele tiden.

Dermis
Papillary layer indeholder: bølget lag så den kan sidde bedre sammen med epidermis
- Collagen fibers
- Fibroblast cells
- Fat cells
- Blood vessels
- Dermiceller- overvågningsceller. kan aktivere immunforsvaret.
- Makrofager - “æde”-celler
- Reticular layer - bindevævet
- Svedkirtler starter her
Reticulært lag - Indeholder:
- Blood vessels
- Glands
- Hair follicles
- Lymph vessels
- Nerves
- Fat cells
- A mesh consisting of collagen and elastin
- Fiboplaseter
- Elastik fiber
- Kollagen fiber
Hypodermis - har fedt i, Hårsækken, nerver og blodbaner,
Glands:
Sebaceous oil gland - microscopic glands found in your hair follicles that secrete sebum. Sebum is an
oily substance that protects your skin from drying out.
Eccrine gland - sweat glands. Findes på hele kroppen. Her kommer svede fra når man dyrker motion.
Apokrine svedkirtler - Findes ikke alle steder på kroppen. Armhulerne, lysken.

Nerver i huden
Frie nerve celler - her føler vi smerte
Føle nerver - sidder især i fingerspidserne. Ligger i toppen af huden.
Vibration og dybe tryk - her sidder nerverne nede ved hypodermis.

Huden og bakterier
Mange flere bakterier end celler i kroppen.

Huden har et immunforsvar

Epidermis celler laver antimikrobielle peptider
Dermis huser mange forskellige immunforsvarsceller
Solskade, varicella, fnat sukkersyge sætter gang i hudens immunforsvar.

Staphylokokker - De laver enzymer, lipase og glycerol ester hydrolase, der degraderer lipider i huden.
Den kan forårsage mange forskellige slags sygdomme.

Det endokrine væv

Betyder ind i. Noget der bliver udskilt (secerneret) inde i kroppen. Her er det hormoner.
•Endokrinologi er læren om hormoner og deres virkning
•Et hormon er et biologisk molekyle
•Udskilles (secerneres) fra en kirtel til blodkarrene
•Cirkulerer med blodet rundt i kroppen
•Virker via specifikke receptorer på mål-cellen

kortikal - udenpå
Medial - inden i

De vigtigste endokrine kirtler

•Pineale: Melatonin -> døgnrytme
•Hypothalamus: Over-over-ordnede hormoner som styrer hypofysen (pituitary)
•Pituitary (hypofysen): Over-ordnede hormoner som styrer individuelle kirtler
•Thyreoidea: Energi stofskifte
•Parathyroidea: Calciumstofskifte
•Thymus: Immunforsvarets T-celler
•Adrenal (binyrerne): Stress-responset
•Pancreas (bugspytkirtlen): Sukkerstofskiftet
•Ovarier og testis: Reproduktion

De fleste endokrine celler er epitheloide (ligner epithel-celler men uden adgang til overflade).
Hormonerne udskilles til extracellulærrummet og frigives derfra til kapillærerne.

Binyre
Har egen karforsyning.
Super vigtige for stressrespons. Akut og kronisk.
Akut - ingen styring over det. Kommer fra rygmarven op til binyren. Øger blodtrykket. Højere puls.
kronisk - binyrebarken. Frigiver hormoner, ACTH (stort protein). Virker på overfladen af
binyrebark-cellerne.
Producerer to hormoner: adrenalin og noradrenalin (katekolaminer). Disse hormoner spiller en vigtig
rolle i kontrollen af, hvor hurtigt dit hjerte slår, blodtrykket og kroppens reaktioner på stress eller
akutte belastninger.

Bugspytkirtlen
De Langerhanske øer er bugspytkirtlens endokrine væv, der er spredt som små øer i det exokrine væv,
producerer insulin og glukagon der sendes ind i blodbanen. β-cellerne udskiller insulin, der sænker
blodsukkeret, og α-celler producerer glukagon, der hæver det.