The Endocrine System

▪ Second controlling system of the

body
▪ Nervous system is the fast-control system
▪ Uses chemical messengers (hormones) that are
released into the
▪ blood
Hormones control several major processes
▪ Reproduction
▪ Growth and development
▪ Mobilization of body defenses
▪ Maintenance of much of homeostasis
▪ Regulation of metabolism
 The Endocrine System

➢ Endocrine system – composed of endocrine

glands and specialized endocrine cells
located through the body
➢ Hormones – secreted chemical messengers
by the endocrine
- derived from he Greek word
glands/cells
“hormon” which means to set into
motion
-Hormones are produced
by
specialized cells
 The Endocrine System
➢ Target tissues/effectors – sites or locations
where the hormone binds and produce
a particular response
➢ Exocrine glands – have ducts that carry
their secretions outside of the body or
into a hollow organ such as stomach or
intestines
example: saliva, sweat, milk and
digestive enzymes
➢ Endocrinology – study of the endocrine
system
 The Major Endocrine Organs
▪ Hypothalamu
▪ sPituitary
▪ gland
Pineal
▪ gland
Thyroid
▪ gland
Parathyroid
▪ glands
Thymus
▪ Adrenal
▪ glands
Pancrea
▪ sGonads (testes and
ovaries)
Functions of the endocrine system
The main regulatory functions of the endocrine system
are:
1 Metabolism – regulates the sum of all chemical changes that occurs
. in tissues which is
metabolism
2 Control of food intake and digestion – regulates the level of satiety
. (fullness) and the breakdown of food into individual
3 nutrients
Tissue development – influences the development of tissues, such as
. those of the nervous
4 system
Ion regulation – regulates the solutes concentration of the
.5 blood
Water balance – regulate water balance by controlling solutes in the
. blood
6 Immune system regulation – helps control the production and functions
of immune
 Functions of the endocrine system
The main regulatory functions of the endocrine system
are:
7. Heart rate and blood pressure
regulation
– helps regulate the heart rate and blood pressure and helps prepare
the body for physical
activity
8. Control of blood glucose and other
nutrients
- controls the levels of blood glucose and other nutrients in the blood
9. Control of reproductive
functions
- controls the development and functions of the reproductive systems
in males and
females
10. Uterine contractions and milk
release- regulates uterine contractions during delivery and stimulates milk
release from the breast in lactating
Classes of chemical
messengers
1. Autocrine chemical messengers
- stimulates cells that originally secretes it.
Example: wbc secretion during infection can stimulate their own
replication so that the total number of number of white blood cells
increases rapidly to fight of
infection
Classes of chemical
messengers
2. Paracrine chemical
messengers
- are local messengers
- secreted by one cell type but affect neighboring cells of the
different
type
- doesn’t travel into general circulation, rather are secreted into
the extracellular
Example: histamine are being release by WBC during allergic
reaction and stimulates vasodilation in nearby blood
vessels
Classes of chemical
messengers
3.
Neurotransmitters
- chemical messengers secreted by neurons that activate an
adjacent cell, whether it is another neuron, a muscle cell or a
glandular
cell.
- secreted into the synaptic cleft rather into the bloodstream
- travels short distances and affects postsynaptic
cells
- are also considered as paracrine chemical messengers due to its
similarity in
function
Classes of chemical
messengers
4. Endocrine chemical
messengers
- secreted into the bloodstream by certain glands and cells,
which together constitute the endocrine system.
- affects target cells/tissues that are distant from their
source.
 Chemical nature of hormones
Hormone can either be:
1. Lipid – soluble hormones
(nonpolar)
- able to pass through the cell membrane of the cell
- small molecules and are insoluble in water-based fluids such
blood plasma and attach itself to a binding protein(fibrinogen,
albumin) to travel via blood to its target
tissue
example: steroid hormones, thyroid hormones and fatty acid
derivatives (eicosaniods)
 Chemical nature of hormones
Hormone can either be:
2. Water – soluble hormones
(polar)- cannot pass to the cell membrane without the help of a protein
channel
- dissolve in the blood thus it can be delivered to their target
tissues without attaching itself to a binding protein.
example: protein hormones, peptide hormones and amino-acid
derivative hormones
 Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release
▪ Hormone levels in the
blood
are maintained mostly
by
negative feedback
▪ A stimulus or low
hormone
levels in the blood trigger
the
release of more hormone
▪ Hormone release stops once an
appropriate level in the blood
is
reached
 Stimulationof Hormone Release
▪ The stimuli that
activate
endocrine
glands fall into
three major
categories:
1. Hormonal
2. Humoral
3. Neural
 Stimuli for Control of
Hormone Release
▪ Hormonal stimuli
▪ Most common type of stimulus
▪ Endocrine organs are
activated by other hormones
being secreted by other organ
▪ Example:
▪ Hormones from the
hypothalamus
and anterior pituitary regulate the
secretion of thyroid hormones
from the thyroid gland
 Stimuli for Control of
Hormone Release
▪ Humoral stimuli
▪ Changing blood levels of certain ions
and nutrients stimulate hormone
▪ Humoral refers to various body
release
such
fluids,as blood and
▪ Sensitive
bile to blood levels such as
glucose, calcium or
sodium
▪ Examples
: ▪ Parathyroid hormone and
are produced in response to changing
calcitonin
levels of blood calcium
▪ Insulin
levels is produced in response
changing
to levels of blood
levels
glucose
▪ Glucagon is release when blood
(hyperglycemia)
 glucose fall too short

Stimuli for Control of

Hormone Release
▪ Neural
stimuli
▪ Nerve fibers stimulate hormone
release
▪ Most are under the control of the
sympathetic nervous system
▪ Examples
: ▪ Sympathetic stimulation of the
adrenal medulla to
release
catecholamines during exercise.
This increase HR, and in turn
increase BF through the exercising
muscle.
 Stimuli for Control of
Hormone Release
▪ Neural
stimuli
▪ Some secretes chemical
messengers to the blood when
stimulated, making this
messengers hormones, which
are called
▪ neuropeptides.
Specialized neuropeptides
stimulates hormone secretion
and are called releasing
hormones, a term usually
reserve for hormones of the
hypothalamu
Inhibition of hormone release
Stimulating hormone secretion are important, but inhibiting hormone
release is also important to create homeostasis within the target
tissues
3 types of
stimuli:
1. Humoral
2. stimuli
Neural
3. stimuli
Hormonal
stimuli
Inhibition of hormone release
Inhibition of hormones release by Humoral
Stimuli- a companion hormone is release that inhibits the same
humoral stimuli. Usually the companion hormones effect opposes
those of the secreted hormone and counteract the secreted hormones
action
example: the adrenal cortex secretes aldosterone that raises the
body’s blood pressure in response to low blood pressure. However, if
blood pressure goes up, the atria of the heart secretes the hormone
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), which lowers blood pressure.
therefore: aldosterone and ANP work together to maintain
homeostasis of blood
pressure
Inhibition of hormone release
Inhibition of hormones release by Neural Stimuli
- neurons inhibits target just as often as they stimulate targets. If the
neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the target endocrine gland does not secret its
hormone

Inhibition of hormones release by hormonal Stimuli

- some hormones prevents the secretion of other hormones
example: hypothalamic hormones prevent the secretion of tropic
hormones from the anterior gland are called inhibiting hormones. Thyroid
hormones can control their own blood levels by inhibiting their anterior
tropic hormone.
 The Chemistry of Hormones
▪ Hormones are classified chemically
as:
▪ Amino acid - based, which includes:
▪ Proteins
▪ Peptides
▪ Amines
▪ Steroids - made from
▪ cholesterol
Prostaglandins - made from
highly
active lipids that act as
local
hormones
 Hormone Action
▪ Hormones affect only
certain tissues or organs
(target cells or target
organs)
▪ Target cells must have
specific protein receptors
▪ Hormone binding alters
cellular activity
 Hormone Action
▪ Hormones arouse cells or alter
cellular
activity
▪ Typically, one or more of the
following
occurs:
1. Change plasma membrane
permeability or membrane potential
by opening or closing ion channels
2. Activate or inactivate enzymes
3. Stimulate or inhibit cell division
4. Promote or inhibit secretion of a product
5. Turn on or off transcription of certain
genes
 Hormone Action
▪ Hormones act by two
mechanisms
1. Direct gene activation
▪ Used by steroid hormones and
thyroid hormone (lipid-soluble) bind
to nuclear
receptors
2. Second - messenger system
▪ Used by protein and
peptide
hormones (water-soluble) bind to
membrane-bound
receptors
 Hormone Action
▪ Direct gene
activation
1. Steroid hormones (lipid-soluble)
freely cross the plasma membrane
of target cells due to its small size
and are nonpolar
2. Once inside the cell, the hormone enters
the nucleus
3. Then, the hormone binds to a specific
protein within the nucleus
4. Hormone - receptor complex binds to
specific sites on the cell’s DNA
5. Certain genes are activated to transcribe
messenger RNA
 Hormone Action
▪ Direct gene
7.activation
Protein produces the hormones effect
at the target
cell.
Example: testosterone stimulates the
synthesize of protein that is responsible for
the activation of the male secondary sexual
characteristics (formation of muscle mass and
bones, deepening of the voice and
development of facial and pubic hair)
aldosterone affects target cells in
kidney by stimulating synthesis of protein that
increase Na+ and k+ transport
 Steroid Cytoplas Nucleu 1. Steroid hormones
hormone m s
Receptor diffuse through the
1 2 protein plasma membrane of
3 target cells
2. Once inside the cell,
Hormone-receptor the hormone enters the
complex 4
nucleus
Mechanism DNA 3. Then, the hormone
s of binds to a specific protein
mRNA within the nucleus
Hormone 5 4. Hormone-receptor
action New complex binds to specific
protein sites on the cell’s DNA
5. Certain genes are
Plasma activated to transcribe
membrane messenger RNA
of target 6. New proteins are
cell 6
synthesized
(a) Direct gene activation
 Hormone Action
▪ Second - messenger
1.system
Water soluble hormone (first messenger)
binds to a membrane-bound
receptor
because it cannot pass through the cell
membrane (nonpolar)
2. 2. Activated receptor sets off a series of
reactions that activates an enzyme
3. Enzyme catalyzes a reaction that produces
a second - messenger molecule (such as
cyclic Adenosine MonoPhosphate, known as
cAMP)
4. Oversees additional intracellular changes
to promote a specific response in the target
 Hormone Action
▪ Second - messenger
1.system
Water soluble hormone (first messenger)
binds to a membrane-bound
receptor
because it cannot pass through the cell
membrane (nonpolar)
2. 2. Activated receptor sets off a series of
reactions that activates an enzyme
3. Enzyme catalyzes a reaction that produces
a second - messenger molecule (such as
cyclic Adenosine MonoPhosphate, known as
cAMP)
4. Oversees additional intracellular changes
to promote a specific response in the target
 Cytoplas
Hormone (first 1. Hormone (first
m
messenger) messenger) binds to a
Enzyme membrane receptor
2. Activated receptor
ATP
sets off a series of
reactions that activates
1 2 3 an enzyme
Mechanism 3. Enzyme catalyzes a
Second
s of cAMP
messenger
reaction that produces
a second-messenger
Hormone molecule (such as cyclic
4
action Receptor AMP, known as cAMP)
protein 4. Oversees additional
Effect on cellular function, intracellular changes to
such as glycogen
promote a specific
Plasma breakdown
response in the target
membrane
of target cell cell

(b) Second-messenger system

 The Major Endocrine Organs
▪ Some glands have purely endocrine
functions
▪ Anterior pituitary, thyroid, adrenals,
parathyroids
▪ Endocrine glands are ductless
▪ glands
Hormones are released directly into
blood or
▪ lymph
Other glands are mixed glands, with
both endocrine and exocrine functions
(pancreas,
gonads)
 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
▪ Pituitary gland (hypophysis
▪ Pea-sized gland) that hangs
by
a stalk called the infundibulum
that connects to the
hypothalamus in the
▪ brain
Protected by the sella turcica of
the sphenoid
▪ bone
Historically known as body’s
–
master gland but recent studies shows
that the hypothalamus controls the
pituitary gland in two ways: hormonal
 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
Hormonal control of Anterior Pituitary
- synthesizes hormone under the control of the
hypothalamus
- neurons secretes neuropeptide (either releasing
or inhibiting hormones)
- travel to the APG via the Hypothalamic -pituitary
portal system. Binds to membrane -bound receptors
involve in regulating APG hormone secretion.
Releasing hormones – stimulate the production and
secretion of hormones by the AP
Inhibiting Hormones – decreases the secretion of an
 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
Direct Innervation of the Posterior
Pituitary
- PP is a storage location for the hormones
secreted by neurons of the
hypothalamus
- cell bodies of the neuron found in the
hypothalamus extends their axon through the
infundibulum to the
PPG
- hormones produce in nerve cell bodies
transported to the axon (PPG) to be stored
and be
released
 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
▪ Has two functional lobes:
- Anterior pituitary – made up of
epithelial cells derived from embryonic
oral cavity
- Posterior pituitary – is an
extension of the brain and is composed
of nerve
cells
- Hormones from the PG control the
functions of other glands such as
gonads, thyroid gland and adrenal
cortex.
 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
H ypothalamus
- is an important autonomic
n ervous system and endocrine control
c enter of the brain located inferior to
t
halamus.
▪ produces releasing hormones and
inhibiting
hormones
▪ These hormones are released
into portal circulation,
which
connects hypothalamus
to
anterior pituitary
 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

▪ Hypothalamus also
makes
two hormones:
oxytocin
and antidiuretic
hormone
▪ Carried to posterior
pituitary
via neurosecretory
cells
(neurons) for storage
 Hormones Hypothalamic
neurosecretory
cells
released by the
Optic
chiasma Hypothalamus

posterior
pituitary and
their target Axon
Arterial blood supply
organs. terminals

Posterior lobe
Capillary bed

Venous drainage
Anterior lobe
of the pituitary

ADH Oxytocin

Kidney tubules Mammary glands

Hormones of the anterior pituitary and their major target
organs Releasing hormones Hypothalamus
secreted into portal
circulation

Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary

Hypophyseal
portal system Adrenocorticotropic
Growth hormone (GH) hormone (ACTH)

Bones and muscles Prolactin (PRL) Follicle-stimulating Thyrotropic Adrenal cortex

hormone (FSH) hormone (TH)
and luteinizing
Mammary hormone (LH)
glands
Thyroid

Testes or ovaries
 Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
▪ Six anterior pituitary
hormones
▪ Two hormones affect
non-
endocrine targets
1. Growth hormone
2. Prolactin
▪ Four are tropic hormones
1. Follicle - stimulating hormone
2. Luteinizing hormone
3. Thyrotropic hormone
4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone
 Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Hormone
Growth Hormone
Controlled by: releasing hormones
inhibiting hormones
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
(Thyrotropic hormone)
- binds to receptors on cells of the
TG and stimulate the secretion of
thyroid hormones
Function
• Stimulates bone growth and tissue
• Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
• Causes fats to be broken down for a source of
energy (lipid breakdown)
Influences growth and activity of the thyroid
gland
TSH secreted in large amount: thyroid gland
enlarges and secretes too much thyroid
hormones
TSH secreted in small amount: thyroid gland
decreases in size
 Hormonal Disorders
•Growth hormone (GH) disorders
• Pituitary dwarfism results from
hyposecretion of GH during
childhood, usually small in size
but in
• proportion
Giantism results from
hypersecretion
of GH before the bones finish
growing in length during
childhood
- abnormally
tall results from
• Acromegaly
hypersecretion of GH during
 Hormonal Disorders

•Growth hormone (GH)

disorders
Acromegaly results
from hypersecretion of
GH after growth in bone
length is complete,
growth continues in
bone diameter only. As a
result facial features and
hands becomes
abnormally large
 Anterior Pituitary
Hormone
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- binds to membrane-bound receptors
on adrenal cortex cells.
- ACTH increases the secretions of a
hormone cortisol/hydrocortisone (adrenal
cortex)
- ACTH is required to keep the adrenal
cortex from degenerating
Gonadotropic hormones
(1) Luteinizing hormone (LH)
(2) Follicle-stimulating hormone
- binds to membrane-bound
receptors on the cells of the
gonads
Function
Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal
cortex (glucocorticoid)
Also binds to melanocytes of the skin that
increases skin pigmentation
darkening of the skin – indicates too much
ACTH secretion
Regulate the growth, development and function
of the gonads
Luteinizing hormones
– stimulates ovulation (in female)
- promotes the secretion of reproductive
hormone testosterone (referred to as interstitial

Anterior Pituitary
Hormone
Gonadotropic hormones
(1) Luteinizing hormone (LH)
(2) Follicle-stimulating hormone
- binds to membrane-bound
receptors on the cells of the
gonads
cell-stimulating hormones)
Function
Regulate the growth, development and function
of the gonads
Follicle stimulating hormones (FSH)
- stimulates the development of follicles in
the ovaries and sperm cells in the testes.
: without LH and FSH, ovaries and testes
decreases in size, no longer produce oocytes or
sperm cells (sterility) and cannot secret
hormones
 Anterior Pituitary
Hormone Function
Prolactin Helps to promote development of the breast
- binds to membrane-bound receptor in (during pregnancy) and stimulates milk production
cells of the breast following pregnancy

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) -binds to melanocytes of the skin that

- binds to membrane-bound receptors
on melanocytes and causes synthesize
melanin
increases skin pigmentation
- structure is similar to ACTH, and over
secretion of either hormones causes the skin
to darken.
 Posterior Pituitary (Hypothalamus)
Hormone Function
Antidiuretic hormone • Inhibits urine production by
(ADH)
- binds to membrane-bound water reabsorption by the kidneys (less
promoting
receptors and increase water water loss in
reabsorption by kidney • Causes
urine) vasoconstriction ( in large
tubule leading to increased blood
amounts) Also
known as vasopressin
pressure.
• Reduced ADH release from the PPG
in large amounts of
results
urine
Diabetes insipidus - Hyposecretion of
ADH * Continually thirsty and drink huge amounts of
* Excretes large amount of diluted urine (excess water loss from the blood)
water.
* Increases concentration of fluids and causes loss of Na+, K+ and Ca.
 Posterior Pituitary (Hypothalamus)
Hormone Function
Oxytocin • Stimulates contractions of the
- binds to membrane-bound during
uterus labor, sexual relations, and
receptors to the target cells (uterus and breastfeeding in lactating
breast) • Causes
womenmilk ejection/letdown in a nursing
woman

• Commercial
- known as Pitocin are given to assist in
preparation
childbirth and to constrict uterine blood
vessels following childbirth.
 Hypothalamic
neurosecretory
Optic cells
chiasma Hypothalamus

Axon
Arterial blood supply
terminals

Posterior lobe
Capillary bed

Venous drainage
Anterior lobe
of the pituitary

ADH Oxytocin

Kidney tubules Mammary glands

 Thyroid Gland
▪ Found at the base of the throat,
inferior to the
Adam’s apple
▪ Consists of two lobes and a
connecting
▪ isthmus
Appears more red than other
because it is highly
vascularize
▪dOne of the largest endocrine
glands
▪ Produces two hormones
1. Thyroid hormone (T3 & T4)
 Thyroid Gland
Hormone Function
Thyroid hormone • Major metabolic hormone
- regulated by • Controls rate of oxidation of glucose to supply body heat
hormones from the and chemical energy
hypothalamus and • Needed for tissue growth and development
pituitary. • Composed of two active iodine-containing hormones
Thyroxine or tetraiodothyronine (T 4) - secreted by
thyroid follicle
Triiodothyronine 3) - conversion of T4 at target tissues
(T
Iodine is needed to synthesize these thyroid hormones
and without iodine, TSH is increase leading to goiter

Hypothalamus secretes TSH-
releasing hormones (TRH)
TRH travels to the anterior
pituitary gland
Stimulates the release of
TSH
Stimulates secretion of
Thyroid hormones
Thyroid Gland
decreased Thyroid
hormones means, increasing
secretion of TRH and TSH
Negative feedback happens to
hypothalamus and anterior
pituitary
gland
Increased Thyroid
hormones means, decrease
No negative feedback, TS
happens to increase in
maximum amount (suppre
Thyroid hormone)
Goiter
- RTH and TSH increased
above normal, enlarges
the thyroid
- gland
Low iodine in the diet
 secretion of TRH and TSH

Thyroid Hormone Disorders

• Goiter
• Thyroid gland enlarges due to lack of
iodine
• Salt is iodized to prevent
goiters
• Cretinism
• Caused by hyposecretion of
(hypothyroidism
thyroxine
• )Causes mental retardation, short
stature (dwarfism) and abnormally
formed
skull
 Thyroid Hormone Disorders

• Myxedem
a- accumulation of fluid and other
molecules in the
skin- causse by
-hypothyroidism
characterized by physical and mental
sluggishness, puffiness in the face
(moonface), poor muscle tone, low body
temperature, obesity and dry skin.
 Thyroid Hormone Disorders
• Grave’s
disease
- an autoimmune disease that causes
hyperthyroidism (elevated release of
thyroid
hormones)
- symptoms of
hyperthyroidism:
- high basal metabolic rate,
intolerance of heat, rapid heartbeat, weight
loss, nervous and agitated behavior and
irritability
- another significant symptoms
accompanied by hyperthyroidism is
 Thyroid Gland
Hormone Function
Calcitonin • Decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium
deposition on bone
• Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone (increases Ca+ production)
• Release directly into the blood in response to increasing levels
of blood calcium.
Hormonal Calcitonin
control
of the level of Calcitonin
stimulates
calcium ions calcium salt
deposit in bone.
in the
Thyroid gland
blood releases calcitonin.

Stimulus
Rising blood
Ca2+ levels

Calcium homeostasis of blood:

BALANCE BALANCE
9–11 mg/100 ml
Stimulus
Falling blood
Ca2+ levels

Thyroid
gland
Osteoclasts
degrade bone Parathyroid
matrix and release glands Parathyroid
Ca2+ into blood. glands release
parathyroid
PTH hormone (PTH).
 Parathyroid Glands
▪ Tiny masses on the posterior of the
▪ thyroid
Secrete parathyroid hormone
(PTH)
▪ Most important regulator of calcium
ion (Ca2+) homeostasis of the blood
▪ Stimulates osteoclasts to remove calcium
from bone
▪ Hypercalcemic hormone (increases
blood calcium levels)
▪ Stimulates the kidneys and intestine to
absorb more calcium
▪ PTH decrease loss of Ca2+ in the urine
 Parathyroid Glands
▪ Prolonged reabsorption of the bone results
in reduced bone density as manifested by
soft, flexible bones that deforms in young
people and porous, fragile bones in older
people
▪ Increasing blood Ca+ levels stimulates
calcitonin secretion, which decreases
blood
▪ Ca+
Decrease blood Ca+ stimulates an
increase in PTH secretion.
 Parathyroid Glands
▪ Hyperparathyroidism
- abnormally high rate of PTH
- cause: tumor in PTG
- bones can become soft, deformed and easily
fractured
▪ Hypoparathyroidism
- abnormally low rate of PTH
- cause: due to injury (PTG) or surgical removal
of the TG and PTG
- nerves and muscles become excitable and
causes muscle cramps or tetany (uncontrolled
spasm)

Hormonal Calcitonin
control
of the level of Calcitonin
stimulates
calcium ions calcium salt
deposit in bone.
in the
Thyroid gland
blood releases calcitonin.

Stimulus
Rising blood
Ca2+ levels

Calcium homeostasis of blood:

BALANCE BALANCE
9–11 mg/100 ml
Stimulus
Falling blood
Ca2+ levels

Thyroid
gland
Osteoclasts
degrade bone Parathyroid
matrix and release glands Parathyroid
Ca2+ into blood. glands release
parathyroid
PTH hormone (PTH).
 Adrenal Glands
▪ Sit on top of the kidneys
▪ Two regions
1. Adrenal cortex - outer glandular region has
three layers that produce corticosteroids
▪ Mineralocorticoids are secreted by
outermost layer
▪ Glucocorticoids are secreted by middle
layer
▪ Sex hormones are secreted by innermost
layer
2. Adrenal medulla - inner neural tissue
region
 Adrenal
Capsule
gland
Mineralocorticoid-
Kidney secreting area

Glucocorticoid-
secreting area
Adrenal gland Adrenal
Corte cortex
•Medulla
•Cortex
x

Sex hormone-
Kidney secreting area

Medull Adrenal
medulla
a
 Adrenal Glands
1. Mineralocorticoids – helps to regulate blood
levels of K+ and Na+
- Produced in outer adrenal cortex
- Aldosterone: is the major hormone of
mineralocorticoid
: binds to receptor molecules in the
kidney (target organ)
: causes Na+ and H2O to be retained
in the body and increase the rate at which K+
is eliminated (retention of Na and H2O)
 Adrenal Glands
Continuation. . .
- changes in BP indirectly affects he rate of
aldosterone secretion.
- low blood pressure causes the release of
protein molecule called renin (kidney)
- renin acts an enzyme causes
angiotensinogen to be converted to angiotensin
1 - next, the protein called angiotensin-
converting enzyme causes the angiotensin I to be
converted to angiotensin
II
Angiotensin II – causes smooth muscles in blood Aldosterone causes retention of Na+
and H2O, which leads to an increas
vessels to constrict and act on adrenal cortex to in blood volume. Blood vessel
increase aldosterone secretion. constriction and increased blood
 Adrenal Glands
▪ Hormones of the adrenal cortex
(continued
) ▪ Release of aldosterone is stimulated by:
▪ Humoral factors (fewer
sodium
ions or too many potassium ions
in the
▪ blood)
Hormonal stimulation
▪ (ACTH)
Renin and angiotensin II in response to
a drop in blood
pressure production is inhibited by
▪ Aldosterone
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), a
hormone produced by the heart when
blood pressure is too high
 Adrenal Glands
2. Glucocorticoids – second class of
hormones being secreted by the 2nd
layer.
- helps regulate blood nutrient levels
- major glucocorticoid hormone is
the
cortisol
Cortisol – increases the breakdown of
protein and lipids and increases their
conversion to forms energy the body
can use.
ACTH from APG bind to membrane-
bound receptors and regulate the
secretion of cortisol:
• 1. corticotropic-releasing hormone (CRH) is
released from hypothalamic neurons in
response to stress or low blood glucose and
passes, by way of the
hypothalamohypophysial portal system
• 2.in the APG, CRH binds to and stimulate
cells that secrete adrenocorticotropic
hormones
• 3. ACTH binds to membrane-bound receptors
or cells of the adrenal cortex and stimulates
the secretion of glucocorticoid primarily
cortisol
• 4. cortisol acts on target tissues, resulting in
increase lipid and protein breakdown,
increase glucose level and anti-inflammatory
effects
• 5. cortisol has a negative feedback effect it
inhibits CRH release from the hypothalamus
 Adrenal Glands
3. Sex hormones – secreted by the inner
layer of the adrenal glands
- stimulates the development of the male
secondary sexual characteristics.
- in adult males: most androgens are
secreted by the testes.
- in adult female: the adrenal androgens
influences the female sexual drive.
- Most of the hormones produced are
androgens (male sex hormones), but some
estrogens (female sex hormones) are also
formed
Roles of the hypothalamus, adrenal medulla, and adrenal cortex in the stress response
Short term Stress More prolonged
Hypothalamu
s Releasing
hormones
Nerve impulses
Spinal
cord Corticotropic cells of
anterior
pituitary

ACTH Adrena
Preganglionic lcortex
Adrenal sympathetic
medulla fibers

Mineralocorticoid Glucocorticoid
s s

Shor t-term stress response Long-term stress response

Catecholamines 1. Increased heart 1.Retention of sodium 1. Proteins and fats

(epinephrine and rate
2. Increased blood and water by converted to glucose
norepinephrine pressure
3. Liver converts glycogen to 2.kidneys
Increased blood or broken down for
) glucose and releases glucose volume and blood energy
to blood pressur 2. Increased blood sugar
4. Dilation of bronchioles e 3. Suppression of
5. Changes in blood flow patterns, immune
leading to increased alertness system
and decreased digestive and
kidney
6. activity
Increased metabolic
 Adrenal Glands
2. Adrenal Medulla - inner neural tissue region
- Principal hormone release is the epinephrine
(adrenaline) and norepinephrine
(noradrenaline)
- Prepares the body for intense physical
activity
- Major effects of hormones:
1. Release of stored energy sources to support
increased physical activity
2. Increase heart rate, which also raises BP
3. Vasoconstriction and increased smooth
muscle contractions which raises BP
 Adrenal Glands
2. Adrenal medulla - inner neural tissue region
4. Increased blood flow to skeletal muscle
5. Increased metabolic rate of several tissues,
especially skeletal, cardiac muscle and nervous
tissue
 Adrenal
Capsule
gland
Mineralocorticoid-
Kidney secreting area

Glucocorticoid-
secreting area
Adrenal gland Adrenal
Corte cortex
•Medulla
•Cortex
x

Sex hormone-
Kidney secreting area

Medull Adrenal
medulla
a

Microscopic structure of the adrenal

 Thymus
▪ Located in the upper thorax,
posterior to the
▪ sternum
Largest in infants and
▪ children
Decreases in size throughout
adulthoo
▪dProduces a hormone
called
thymosi
n ▪ Matures some types of
white
blood cells (T
▪ cells)
Important in developing
the
immune system
 Pineal Gland
▪ Hangs from the roof of the third
ventricle of the
▪ brain
Is a small pinecone-shaped
structure
▪ Secretes
melatonin
▪ Believed to trigger the
body’s sleep/wake
▪ cycle
Believed to coordinate
the
hormones of fertility in
humans and to inhibit
the
reproductive system until
maturity
 Pancreatic Islets
▪ Pancrea
s ▪ Located in the abdomen, close to stomach
▪ Mixed gland, with both endocrine and exocrine functions
▪ The pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) produce
hormones
▪ Insulin - produced by beta cells
▪ Glucagon - produced by alpha cells
▪ These hormones antagonize each other to maintain blood sugar homeostasis
 Pancreatic Islets
▪ Insulin
▪ Released when blood glucose levels
are high
▪ Increases the rate of glucose uptake
and metabolism by body cells
▪ Effects are hypoglycemic
▪ Glucagon
▪ Released when blood glucose levels
are low
▪ Stimulates the liver to release
glucose to blood, thus increasing
blood glucose levels
.
Uptake of glucose
from blood is
Regulation of the blood
enhanced in most
body cells. glucose level by a negativ
feedback mechanism
Insulin-secretingcells
of the pancreas
Insulin Tissue cells involving pancreatic
activated; release
insulin into
hormones
the blood. Pancreas Glucose Glycogen
Blood glucose
falls to homeostatic
set point; stimulus
Elevated blood Liver takes up for insulin release
sugar level glucose and stores diminishes.
as glycogen.

Stimulus
Blood glucose
level (e.g., after BALANCE: Normal blood glucose leve
eating four jelly (about 90 mg/100 ml) l
doughnuts) Stimulus
Blood glucose
level (e.g., after
Blood glucose rises skipping a meal)
to homeostatic Low blood sugar level
set point; stimulus
for glucagon
release diminishes.

Glucagon-releasing
Glucose Glycogen cells of pancreas
Liver breaks
down glycogen activated; release
stores and Liver glucagon into blood.
releases glucose Glucagon
 Gonads
▪ Produce sex cells (exocrine fnx)
▪ Produce sex hormones (endocrine fnx)

▪ Ovaries
▪ Female gonads located in the pelvic
cavity
▪ Produce eggs (ovaries)
▪ Produce two groups of steroid hormones
1. Estrogens
2. Progesterone
▪ Testes
▪ Male gonads suspended outside the
pelvic cavity
▪ Produce sperm
▪ Produce androgens, such as testosterone
 Gonads
▪ Estrogen
s ▪ Stimulate the development of secondary female
characteristics
▪ Mature the female reproductive organs

▪ Progesteron
e ▪ Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
▪ Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus
▪ Helps prepare breasts for lactation

▪ With progesterone, estrogens

also:
▪ Promote breast development
▪ Regulate menstrual cycle
 Gonads
▪ Testes
▪ Produce several androgens
▪ Testosterone is the most
important androgen
▪ Responsible
for
adult male
secondary sex
characteristic
▪ sPromotes growth
and
maturation of
male
reproductive
▪ system
Required for sperm
cell
production
 Other Hormone - Producing Tissues and Organs

▪ Other organs that are

generally nonendocrine in
function also secrete
hormones
▪ Stomac
▪hSmall
▪ intestine
Kidneys
▪ Heart
 Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and Organs
▪ Placent
a ▪ Produces hormones that maintain
pregnancy
▪ Some hormones play a part in the
delivery of the baby
▪ Produces human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG) in addition to
estrogen, progesterone, and other
hormones
▪ Human placental lactogen (hPL)
prepares the breasts for lactation
▪ Relaxin relaxes pelvic ligaments and
pubic symphysis for childbirth
Hormones Produced by Organs Other Than the Major
Endocrine Organs (1 of
3)
Hormones Produced by Organs Other Than the
Major Endocrine Organs (2 of 3)
Hormones Produced by Organs Other Than the
Major Endocrine Organs (3 of 3)
 Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System
▪ In the absence of
disease, efficiency of the
endocrine system
remains high until
old
age
▪ Decreasing function of female
ovaries at menopause leads
to such symptoms as
osteoporosis,
increased
chance of heart disease, and
possible mood
 Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System

▪ Efficiency of all endocrine

glands gradually decreases
with aging, which leads to a
generalized increase in
incidence of:
▪ Diabetes
▪ mellitus
Immune system
▪ depression
Lower metabolic rate
▪ Cancer rates in some
areas
This ends our
Topic on
Anatomy &
Physiology
of
The Endocrine
System

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