HAPL4 - HUMAN ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY - MODULE 4 & 5

Human Anatomy and Physiology A.Y.
2020- 2021
HAPL4 – The Endocrine System
I-Learning Competencies
1. Identify the contributions of the endocrine system to
homeostasis
2. Discuss the chemical composition of hormones and the mechanisms of hormone
action
3. Summarize the site of production, regulation, and effects of the hormones of the
pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal glands
4. Discuss the hormonal regulation of the reproductive system
5. Explain the role of the pancreatic endocrine cells in the regulation of blood
glucose
6. Identify the hormones released by the heart, kidneys, and other organs with
secondary endocrine functions
7. Discuss several common diseases associated with endocrine system dysfunction
8. Discuss the embryonic development of, and the effects of aging on, the endocrine
system
9. Distinguish the types of intercellular communication, their importance,
mechanisms, and effects
10. Identify the major organs and tissues of the endocrine system and their location
in the body
II-Notes:
 You may never have thought of it this way, but when you send a text message to
two friends to meet you at the dining hall at six, you’re sending digital signals
that (you hope) will affect their behavior—even though they are some distance
away.
 Similarly, certain cells send chemical signals to other cells in the body that
influence their behavior. This long-distance intercellular communication,
coordination, and control is critical for homeostasis, and it is the fundamental
function of the endocrine system.
 Hormones of the endocrine system coordinate and control growth,
metabolism, temperature regulation, the stress response, reproduction, and
many other functions.
The Endocrine System:
 The endocrine system is a network of glands in your body that make the
hormones that help cells talk to each other. They’re responsible for almost every
cell, organ, and function in your body.
 If your endocrine system is not healthy, you might have problems developing
during puberty, getting pregnant, or managing stress. You also might gain weight
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Human Anatomy and Physiology A.Y. 2020- 2021
easily, have weak bones, or lack energy because too much sugar stays in your
blood instead of moving into your cells where it's needed for energy.
The Gland:
 A gland is an organ that makes and puts out hormones that do a specific job
in your body. Endocrine glands release the substances they make into your
bloodstream.
Endocrine System Functions
Your endocrine system:
 Makes hormones that control your moods, growth and development,
metabolism, organs, and reproduction
 Controls how your hormones are released
 Sends those hormones into your bloodstream so they can travel to other body
parts
Parts of the Endocrine System
 Many glands make up the endocrine system.
 The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland are in your brain.
 The thyroid and parathyroid glands are in your neck.
 The thymus is between your lungs
 The adrenals are on top of your kidneys
 The pancreas is behind your stomach
 Your ovaries (if you're a woman) or testes (if you're a man) are in your pelvic
region.
1. Hypothalamus. This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous
system. Its main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making
hormones.
2. Pituitary gland. This is your endocrine system’s master gland. It uses
information it gets from your brain to tell other glands in your body what to do. It
makes many important hormones, including growth hormone; prolactin, which
helps breastfeeding moms make milk; and luteinizing hormone, which manages
estrogen in women and testosterone in men.
3. Pineal gland. It makes a chemical called melatonin that helps your body get
ready to go to sleep.
4. Thyroid gland. This gland makes thyroid hormone, which controls your
metabolism. If this gland doesn't make enough (a condition called
hypothyroidism), everything happens more slowly. Your heart rate might slow
down. You could get constipated. And you might gain weight. If it makes too
much (hyperthyroidism), everything speeds up. Your heart might race. You could
have diarrhea. And you might lose weight without trying.
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5. Parathyroid. This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They play a
role in bone health. The glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus.
6. Thymus. This gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight
infection and are crucial as a child's immune system develops. The thymus starts
to shrink after puberty.
7. Adrenals. Best known for making the "fight or flight" hormone adrenaline (also
called epinephrine), these two glands also make hormones called
corticosteroids. They affect your metabolism and sexual function, among other
things.
8. Pancreas. This organ is part of both your digestive and endocrine systems. It
makes digestive enzymes that break down food. It also makes the hormones
insulin and glucagon. These ensure you have the right amount of sugar in your
bloodstream and your cells.
 If you don't make insulin, which is the case for people with type 1 diabetes,
your blood sugar levels can get dangerously high.
 In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas usually makes some insulin but not enough.
9. Ovaries. In women, these organs make estrogen and progesterone. These
hormones help develop breasts at puberty, regulate the menstrual cycle, and
support a pregnancy.
10. Testes. In men, the testes make testosterone. It helps them grow facial and body
hair at puberty. It also tells the penis to grow larger and plays a role in making
sperm.
Hormones
 are secreted from the glands of the endocrine system, they are specific in that
each hormone causes a response in a specific target organ or group of cells,
rather than on the body as a whole.
 Exocrine hormones are secreted via a duct into the blood and usually effect a
distant organ or tissue.
 Endocrine hormones are secreted within the tissue (rather than via a duct) and
enter the blood stream via capillaries.
Hormones can be grouped into three main types:
1. amines, these are simple molecules
2. proteins
3. peptides which are made from chains of amino acids
steroids which are derived from cholesterol.
Glands
 Discharge hormones directly into the bloodstream
 They have built in feedback mechanisms that maintain a proper balance of
hormones and prevent excess hormone secretion.
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 Low concentrations of a hormone will often trigger the gland to secrete.
 Once the concentrations of the hormone in the blood rise this may cause the
gland to stop secreting, until once again hormone concentrations fall. This
feedback mechanism (which is characteristic of most glands) causes a cycle of
hormone secretions.
Disposal of waste
 Once hormones have served their function on their target organs/tissues they are
destroyed.
 They are either destroyed by the liver or the actual tissues of the target organs.
They are then removed by the kidneys.
The Pituitary Gland
 This is known as the "master gland" because it exerts control over all of the
other glands of the endocrine system.
 Despite its importance the pituitary gland is no larger than a small pea.
 The Pituitary gland is made up of two separate glands: the Anterior lobe which
is an outgrowth of the pharynx, and the Posterior lobe which is an outgrowth of
the brain composed of neural (nerve) tissue.
 The Anterior Lobe of the pituitary plays the 'master' role secreting six major
hormones that affect most of the body, including the other Endocrine glands:
1. ACTH (Adrenocorticotrophic hormone) stimulates the adrenal glands to
secrete its hormones.
2. hGH (Human growth hormone) also known as somatotrophic hormone is
responsible for the growth of long bones, muscles and viscera.
3. TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone) influences the structure of the thyroid and
causes it to secrete thyroid hormone.
4. FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone) stimulates female egg production or male
sperm production.
5. PRL (Prolactin) in females causes the corpus luteum the area around the mature
follicle to produce two important hormones: Estrogen and Progesterone.
During pregnancy PRL is also responsible for the development of the glandular
tissues of the breast which produce milk.
6. LH (Luteinzing hormone) works in conjunction with FSH in females to cause
ovulation and prepares the uterus for pregnancy, in males the testes to secrete
testosterone.
 The Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland (or neurophophysis) stores and
releases hormones secreted by the hypothalamus section of the brain including:
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1. ADH (Antidiuretic hormone) stimulates the smooth muscles, blood vessels and
the intestine. ADH increases the kidney's permeability to water allowing the
body to re-absorb water that would otherwise escape in urine.
2. OT (Oxytocin) stimulates the smooth muscles of the uterus during pregnancy,
causing it to contract during labor. It also stimulates the lacteals (milk ducts) in
the breast.
The Thyroid gland
 The thyroid is a butterfly shaped gland which is located at the base of the
throat.
 It has two lobes separated in the middle by a strip of tissue (the isthmus). The
Thyroid itself secretes three main hormones:
1. Thyroxine contains iodine which is essential for the body's normal growth, and
metabolism.
Thyroxine helps control body size, regulating not only the growth of tissues but
also the differentiation or specialization of tissues.
2. Triiodothyronine has similar functions to thyroxine.
3. Calcitonin causes a decrease in the concentration of calcium in the blood.
Calcitonin works with secretions from the parathyroid glands to maintain the
balance of calcium necessary for the body to function.
People who have surgery to remove the thyroid gland (thyroidectomy) for cancer
or other thyroid problems usually need to take thyroxine supplements in order to
maintain normal weigh and body functions.
The Parathyroids
 There are four Parathyroid glands which are small and rounded, arranged in two
pairs usually located above and below the thyroid.
 Each Parathyroid is small, yellow and smooth, sometimes they imbed themselves
in the thyroid itself.
 Parathyroid hormone increases the blood concentrations of calcium and
phosphorous, working to balance the
Calcitonin which is secreted by the thyroid to maintain the body's balance of
calcium.
The Pancreas
 The pancreas is a long, narrow, lobed gland located behind the stomach.
 The Pancreas has two types of cells: exocrine and endocrine cells.
 The exocrine cells secrete Pancreatic juices which are used in the duodenum as
an important part in the digestive system.
 The endocrine cells are arranged in clusters throughout the pancreas, these
known as Islets of Langerhans.
 There are three types of endocrine cells;
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1. Alpha cells which secrete glucagon
2. Beta cells which secrete insulin
3. Delta cells which inhibit the secretion on glucagon and insulin:
 Glucagon increases the blood glucose level by stimulating the liver causing
convert Glycogen into Glucose (sugar).
 Insulin increases the cells permeability to glucose, which the cells use for
energy. By promoting the utilization of glucose by the tissue cells, insulin causes
a decrease in the concentration of glucose in the blood. Insulin also promotes the
storage of glycogen in the liver.
The Adrenal Glands
 The adrenal glands resemble small caps perched on top of each kidney. The
Adrenal is actually a combination of two glands the adrenal cortex and the
adrenal medulla.
 The adrenal cortex is essential for life, as opposed to the adrenal medulla which
is important but not indispensable.
The anterior pituitary controls the adrenal cortex by secreting the hormone
ACTH. All of the secretions of the adrenal cortex are known as steroids, many of
which can now be manufactured synthetically.
 The adrenal cortex is made up of three layers associated with three classes of
hormones:
1. Mineralocorticoids are produced by the outer layer of the adrenal cortex, the
most important of which is aldosterone. Aldosterone promotes the retention of
sodium (Na+) and the excretion of potassium (K+). This helps to maintain both
the electrolyte and water content of the body.
2. Glucocorticoids are produced by the middle cortex. These affect almost every
cell in the body regulating the metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Cortisone is one such glucocorticoid.
3. Gonadal hormones are produced by the inner cortex, there are roughly even
amounts of two types of hormones secreted: Androgen (male) and Estrogen
(female). The adrenal gland is not the only gland to secrete sex hormones.
 The Adrenal Medulla is the inner part of the adrenal gland. The hormones
secreted effect the structures in the body that are under the control of the
sympathetic nervous system, aiding the body to deal with stressful situations such
as fright, attack or pursuit.
 They are both associated with an increased heart-beat, higher blood pressure, and
higher blood glucose levels, thus preparing the body for quick action.
1. Adrenalin (or epinephrine) affects both alpha and beta receptors in the nervous
system.
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2. Noradrenalin (Norepinephrine) affects only the alpha receptors of the nervous
system.
The Gonads
 The gonads consist of ovaries in the female and testes in the male. These glands
produce hormones important in the development and functioning of the
reproductive organs. they are under the control of the pituitary gland and produce
the secondary sexual traits.
 Male testes are egg shaped glands located in the sac like scrotum and serve two
main functions:
1. The production of sperm cells
2. The secretion of testosterone. Testosterone is the masculinizing hormone
inducing male secondary sexual characteristics after puberty.
 Female ovaries are two almond shaped glands on each side of the uterus. They
have three main functions:
1. Containing immature ova (eggs)
2. The secretion of estrogen
3. The secretion of progesterone
 Estrogen is secreted by the adrenal cortex as well as the ovaries and is present in
the blood of all females from puberty through to the menopause.
 Estrogen acts on the structure of the reproductive organs, especially during the
menstrual cycle. This induces and maintains female secondary sexual
characteristics.
 Progesterone works on the uterus to prepare it for the implantation of a
fertilized ovum (egg). It causes the development of the breasts and is essential for
the complete development of the maternal proportion of the placenta.
 Giantism too much HGH is secreted before puberty.
 Dwarfism is caused by a lack of HGH before puberty.
 Diabetes Mellitus is a condition with under-secretion of insulin, causing the cells
to be losing their permeability to glucose preventing them from getting sugar
needed for energy. Sugar remains in the blood and often the body will try and
remove this leading to a high sugar content in the urine, causing polyuria
(passing of large volumes of urine) and polydipsia (excessive thirst).
Hormones:
 The endocrine system uses hormones to control and coordinate your body's
internal metabolism (or homeostasis) energy level, reproduction, growth and
development, and response to injury, stress, and environmental factors. Consider
the following hormones
CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES
 With respect to their chemical structure, hormones
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may be classified into three groups: amines, proteins,
and steroids.
1.Amines—these simple hormones are structural variations of the amino acid
tyrosine. This group includes thyroxine from the thyroid gland and epinephrine
and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla.
2.Proteins—these hormones are chains of amino acids. Insulin from the
pancreas, growth hormone from the anterior pituitary gland, and calcitonin from
the thyroid gland are all proteins. Short chains of amino acids may be called
peptides. Antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin, synthesized by the hypothalamus,
are peptide hormones.
3. Steroids—cholesterol is the precursor for the steroid hormones, which include
cortisol and aldosterone from the adrenal cortex estrogen and progesterone from
The ovaries, and testosterone from the testes, and their role in the workings of the
endocrine system:
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ESTROGEN
 The ovaries are located in the pelvic cavity, one on each side of the uterus.
The hormones produced by the ovaries are the steroids estrogen and
progesterone, and the protein inhibin.
 Estrogen is secreted by the follicle cells of the ovary; secretion is stimulated by
FSH from the anterior pituitary gland. Estrogen promotes the maturation of the
ovum in the ovarian follicle and stimulates the growth of blood vessels in the
endometrium (lining) of the uterus in preparation for a possible fertilized egg.
 The secondary sex characteristics in women also develop in response to
estrogen. These include growth of the duct system of the mammary glands,
growth of the uterus, and the deposition of fat subcutaneously in the hips and
thighs. The closure of the epiphyseal discs in long bones is brought about by
estrogen, and growth in height stops.
 Estrogen is also believed to lower blood levels of cholesterol and
triglycerides. For women before the age of menopause this is beneficial in that it
decreases the risk of atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease.
 Research suggests that estrogen no longer be considered only a “female”
hormone. Estrogen seems to have effects on many organs, including the brain,
the heart, and blood vessels. In the brain, testosterone from the testes or the
adrenal cortex can be converted to estrogen, which may be important for
memory, especially for older people.
 Estrogen seems to have non-reproductive functions in both men and women,
although we cannot yet be as specific as we can be with the reproductive
functions in women, mentioned previously.
PROGESTERONE
 When a mature ovarian follicle releases an ovum, the follicle becomes the
corpus luteum and begins to secrete progesterone in addition to estrogen. This is
stimulated by LH from the anterior pituitary gland.
 Progesterone promotes the storage of glycogen and the further growth of blood
vessels in the endometrium, which thus becomes a potential placenta.
 The secretory cells of the mammary glands also develop under the influence of
progesterone. Both progesterone and estrogen are secreted by the placenta during
pregnancy
INHIBIN
 The corpus luteum secretes another hormone, called
inhibin. Inhibin helps decrease the secretion of FSH by the
anterior pituitary gland, and GnRH by the hypothalamus.
TESTOSTERONE
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 The testes are located in the scrotum, a sac of skin between the upper thighs.
Two hormones, testosterone and inhibin, are secreted by the testes.
 Testosterone is a steroid hormone secreted by the interstitial cells of the testes;
the stimulus for secretion is LH from the anterior pituitary gland.
 Testosterone promotes maturation of sperm in the seminiferous tubules of the
testes; this process begins at puberty and continues throughout life.
 At puberty, testosterone stimulates development of the male secondary sex
characteristics. These include growth of all the reproductive organs, growth of
facial and body hair, growth of the larynx and deepening of the voice, and growth
(protein synthesis) of the skeletal muscles.
 Testosterone also brings about closure of the epiphyses of the long bones.
INHIBIN
 The hormone inhibin is secreted by the sustentacular cells of the testes; the
stimulus for secretion is increased testosterone.
 The function of inhibin is to decrease the secretion of FSH by the anterior
pituitary gland. The interaction of inhibin, testosterone, and the anterior pituitary
hormones maintains spermatogenesis at a constant rate.
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

 The cells of the adrenal medulla secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine,
which collectively are called catecholamines and are sympathomimetic.
 The secretion of both hormones is stimulated by sympathetic impulses from
the hypothalamus, and their functions duplicate and prolong those of the
sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (mimetic means “to
mimic”).
 Epinephrine (Adrenalin) and norepinephrine (noradrenalin) are both
secreted in stress situations and help prepare the body for “fight or flight.”
 Norepinephrine is secreted in small amounts, and its most significant function is
to cause vasoconstriction in the skin, viscera, and skeletal muscles (that is,
throughout the body), which raises blood pressure.
 Epinephrine, secreted in larger amounts, increases the heart rate and force of
contraction, and stimulates vasoconstriction in skin and viscera and vasodilation
in skeletal muscles. It also dilates the bronchioles, decreases peristalsis,
stimulates the liver to change glycogen to glucose, increases the use of fats for
energy, and increases the rate of cell respiration.
 Many of these effects do indeed seem to be an echo of sympathetic responses,
don’t they? Responding to stress is so important that the body acts redundantly
(that is, exceeds what is necessary, or repeats itself) and has both a nervous
mechanism and a hormonal mechanism.
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 Epinephrine is actually more effective than sympathetic stimulation, however,
because the hormone increases energy production and cardiac output to a greater
extent.
ADRENAL CORTEX
The adrenal cortex secretes three types of steroid hormones: mineralocorticoids,
glucocorticoids, and sex hormones. The sex hormones, “female” estrogens and “male”
androgens (similar to testosterone), are produced in very small amounts, and their
importance is not known with certainty. They may contribute to
rapid body growth during early puberty. They may also be important in supplying
estrogen to women after menopause and to men throughout life.
Aldosterone
 Aldosterone is the most abundant of the mineralocorticoids, and we will use it as
a representative of this group of hormones. The target organs of aldosterone are
the kidneys, but there are important secondary effects as well.
 Aldosterone increases the reabsorption of sodium and the excretion of
potassium by the kidney tubules. Sodium ions (Na) are returned to the blood, and
potassium ions (K) are excreted in urine.
 As Na ions are reabsorbed, hydrogen ions (H) may be excreted in exchange.
This is one mechanism to prevent the accumulation of excess H ions, which
would cause acidosis of body fluids.
 Also, as Na ions are reabsorbed, negative ions such as chloride (Cl) and
bicarbonate (HCO3) follow the Na ions back to the blood, and water follows by
osmosis. This indirect effect of aldosterone, the reabsorption of water by the
kidneys, is very important to maintain normal blood volume and blood pressure.
 In summary, then, aldosterone maintains normal blood levels of sodium and
potassium, and contributes to the maintenance of normal blood pH, blood
volume, and blood pressure.
 A number of factors stimulate the secretion of aldosterone. These are a
deficiency of sodium, loss of blood or dehydration that lowers blood pressure, or
an elevated blood level of potassium.
 Low blood pressure or blood volume activates the renin-angiotensin
mechanism of the kidneys. This process culminates in the formation of a
chemical called angiotensin II.
 Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction and stimulates the secretion of
aldosterone by the adrenal cortex.
 Aldosterone then increases sodium and water retention by the kidneys to help
restore blood volume and blood pressure to normal.
Cortisol
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 We will use cortisol as a representative of the group of hormones called
glucocorticoids, because it is responsible for most of the actions of this group.
 Cortisol increases the use of fats and excess amino acids (gluconeogenesis) for
energy and decreases the use of glucose. This is called the glucose sparing effect,
and it is important because it conserves glucose for use by the brain.
 Cortisol is secreted in any type of physiological stress situation: disease,
physical injury, hemorrhage, fear or anger, exercise, and
hunger.
 Although most body cells easily use fatty acids
and excess amino acids in cell respiration, brain cells do not, so they must have
glucose.
 By enabling other cells to use the alternative energy sources, cortisol ensures
that whatever glucose is present will be available to the brain.
 Cortisol also has an anti-inflammatory effect. During inflammation, histamine
from damaged tissues makes capillaries more permeable, and the lysosomes of
damaged cells release their enzymes, which help break down damaged tissue but
may also cause destruction of nearby healthy tissue.
 Cortisol blocks the effects of histamine and stabilizes lysosomal membranes,
preventing excessive tissue destruction.
 Inflammation is a beneficial process up to a point, and
is an essential first step if tissue repair is to take place.
It may, however, become a vicious cycle of damage,
inflammation, more damage, more inflammation,
and so on—a positive feedback mechanism.
 Normal cortisol secretion seems to be the brake, to limit
the inflammation process to what is useful for tissue
repair, and to prevent excessive tissue destruction.
 Too much cortisol, however, decreases the immune response, leaving the body
susceptible to infection
and significantly slowing the healing of damaged
tissue.
 The direct stimulus for cortisol secretion is ACTH from the anterior pituitary
gland, which in turn is stimulated by corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
from the hypothalamus. CRH is produced in the physiological stress situations
mentioned earlier. Although we often think of epinephrine as a hormone
important in stress, cortisol is also important.
Pancreas
Pancreas is located on the upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity, extending from
the curve of the duodenum to the spleen. Although the pancreas is both an exocrine
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(digestive) gland as well as an endocrine gland, only its endocrine function will be
discussed here. The hormone-producing cells of the pancreas are called islets of
Langerhans (pancreatic islets); they contain alpha cells that produce glucagon and beta
cells that produce
insulin.
GLUCAGON
 Glucagon stimulates the liver to change glycogen to glucose (this process is
called glycogenolysis, which literally means “glycogen breakdown”) and to
increase the use of fats and excess amino acids for energy production.
 The process of gluconeogenesis (literally, “making new glucose”) is the
conversion of excess amino acids into simple carbohydrates that may enter the
reactions of cell respiration.
 The overall effect of glucagon, therefore, is to raise the blood glucose level and
to make all types of food available for energy production.
 The secretion of glucagon is stimulated by hypoglycemia, a low blood glucose
level. Such a state may occur between meals or during physiological stress
situations such as exercise.
INSULIN
 Insulin increases the transport of glucose from the blood into cells by increasing
the permeability of cell membranes to glucose. (Brain, liver, and kidney cells,
however, are not dependent on insulin for glucose intake.)
 Once inside cells, glucose is used in cell respiration to produce energy.
 The liver and skeletal muscles also change glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis,
which means “glycogen production”) to be stored for later use.
 Insulin is also important in the metabolism of other food types; it enables cells to
take in fatty acids and amino acids to use in the synthesis of lipids and proteins
(not energy production).
 Without insulin, blood levels of lipids tend to rise and cells accumulate excess
fatty acids. With respect to blood glucose, insulin decreases its level by
promoting the use of glucose for energy production.
 Insulin is a vital hormone; we cannot survive for very long without it. A
deficiency of insulin or in its functioning is called diabetes mellitus.
 Secretion of insulin is stimulated by hyperglycemia, a high blood glucose level.
This state occurs after eating, especially of meals high in carbohydrates. As
glucose is absorbed from the small intestine into the blood, insulin is secreted to
enable cells to use the glucose for immediate energy.
 At the same time, any excess glucose will be stored in the liver and muscles as
glycogen.
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 The hormone somatostatin, which is identical to growth hormone–inhibiting
hormone from the hypothalamus.
 Pancreatic somatostatin acts locally to inhibit the secretion of insulin and
glucagon, and it seems to slow the absorption of the end products of digestion in
the small intestine.
There are four parathyroid glands: two on the back of each lobe of the thyroid gland. The
hormone they produce is called parathyroid hormone.
PARATHYROID HORMONE
 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is an antagonist to calcitonin and is important for
the maintenance of normal blood levels of calcium and phosphate.
 The target organs of PTH are the bones, small intestine, and kidneys.
 PTH increases the reabsorption of calcium and phosphate from bones to the
blood, thereby raising their blood levels. Absorption of calcium and phosphate
from food in the small intestine, which also requires vitamin D, is increased by
PTH. This too raises the blood levels of these minerals.
 In the kidneys, PTH stimulates the activation of vitamin D and increases the
reabsorption of calcium and the excretion of phosphate (more than is obtained
from bones).
 Therefore, the overall effect of PTH is to raise the
blood calcium level and lower the blood phosphate level.
 Secretion of PTH is stimulated by hypocalcemia, a low blood calcium level,
and inhibited by hypercalcemia. Together, these hormones maintain blood
calcium within a normal range.
 Calcium in the blood is essential for the process of blood clotting and for
normal activity of neurons and muscle cells.
 As you might expect, a sustained hypersecretion of PTH, such as is caused by a
parathyroid tumor, would remove calcium from bones and weaken them.
 It has been found, however, that an intermittent, brief excess of PTH, such as
can occur by injection, will stimulate
the formation of more bone matrix, rather than matrix
reabsorption.
 This may seem very strange—the opposite of what we would expect—but it
shows how much we have yet to learn about the body. PTH is being
investigated as a possible way to help prevent osteoporosis.
THYROID GLAND
The thyroid gland is located on the front and sides of the trachea just below the larynx. Its
two lobes are connected by a middle piece called the isthmus. The structural units of the
thyroid gland are thyroid follicles, which produce thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine
(T3). Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of these hormones; thyroxine contains four
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atoms of iodine, and T3 contains three atoms of iodine. The third hormone produced by
the thyroid gland is calcitonin, which is secreted by parafollicular cells.
THYROXINE AND T3
 Thyroxine (T4) and T3 have the same functions: regulation of energy
production and protein synthesis, which contribute to growth of the body and to
normal body functioning throughout life.
 Thyroxine and T3 increase cell respiration of all food types
(carbohydrates, fats, and excess amino acids) and thereby
increase energy and heat production.
 They also increase the rate of protein synthesis within cells. Normal
production of thyroxine and T3 is essential for physical growth, normal mental
development, and maturation of the reproductive system.
 These hormones are the most important day-to-day regulators of metabolic
rate; their activity is reflected in the functioning of the brain, muscles, heart, and
virtually all
other organs.
 Although thyroxine and T3 are not vital hormones, in that they are not crucial
to survival, their absence greatly diminishes physical and mental growth and
abilities.
 Secretion of thyroxine and T3 is stimulated by
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland. When the
metabolic rate (energy production) decreases, this change is detected by the
hypothalamus, which secretes thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH).
 TRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete TSH,
which stimulates the thyroid to release thyroxine and T3, which raise the
metabolic rate by increasing energy production.
 This negative feedback mechanism then shuts off TRH from the hypothalamus
until the metabolic rate decreases again.
CALCITONIN
 Calcitonin decreases the reabsorption of calcium and phosphate from the
bones to the blood, thereby lowering blood levels of these minerals. This function
of calcitonin helps maintain normal blood levels of calcium and phosphate and it
also helps maintain a stable, strong bone matrix.
 It is believed that calcitonin exerts its most important effects during childhood
when bones are growing. A form of calcitonin obtained from salmon is used to
help treat osteoporosis.
 The stimulus for secretion of calcitonin is hypercalcemia, that is, a high blood
calcium level.
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 When blood calcium is high, calcitonin ensures that no more calcium will be
removed from bones until there is a real need for more calcium in the blood.
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
The hormones of the anterior pituitary gland regulate many body functions. They are
in turn regulated by releasing hormones from the hypothalamus.
These releasing hormones are secreted into capillaries in the hypothalamus and pass
through the hypophyseal portal veins to another capillary network in the anterior pituitary
gland.
Here, the releasing hormones are absorbed and stimulate secretion of the anterior
pituitary hormones.
This pathway permits the releasing hormones to rapidly stimulate the anterior
pituitary, without having to pass through general circulation.
Growth Hormone
 Growth hormone (GH) is also called somatotropin, and it does indeed promote
growth.
 GH stimulates cells to produce insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), intermediary
molecules that bring about the functions of GH.
 Growth hormone increases the transport of amino acids into cells and increases
the rate of protein synthesis.
 Amino acids cannot be stored in the body, so when they are available, they must
be used in protein synthesis. Excess amino acids are changed to carbohydrates or
fat, for energy storage.
 Growth hormone ensures that amino acids will be used for whatever protein
synthesis is necessary before the amino acids can be changed to carbohydrates.
 Growth hormone also stimulates cell division in those tissues
capable of mitosis. These functions contribute to the
growth of the body during childhood, especially growth of
bones and muscles.
 You may now be wondering if GH is secreted in adults, and the answer is yes.
The use of amino acids for the synthesis of proteins is still necessary. Even if the
body is not growing in height, some tissues will require new proteins for repair or
replacement.
 GH also stimulates the release of fat from adipose tissue and the use of fats for
energy production. This is important any time we go for extended periods
without eating, no matter what our ages.
 The secretion of GH is regulated by two releasing hormones from the
hypothalamus. Growth hormone– releasing hormone (GHRH), which increases
the secretion of GH, is produced during hypoglycemia and during exercise.
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 Another stimulus for GHRH is a high blood level of amino acids; the GH then
secreted will ensure the conversion of these amino acids into protein.
 Somatostatin may also be called growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH),
and, as its name tells us, it decreases the secretion of GH. Somatostatin is
produced during hyperglycemia.
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is also called thyrotropin, and its target
organ is the thyroid gland.
 TSH stimulates the normal growth of the thyroid and the secretion of
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). The secretion of TSH is stimulated
by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus.
 When metabolic rate (energy production) decreases, TRH is produced.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the secretion of cortisol and
other hormones by the adrenal cortex.
 Secretion of ACTH is increased by corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
from the hypothalamus.
 CRH is produced in any type of physiological stress situation such as injury,
disease, exercise, or hypoglycemia (being hungry is stressful).
Prolactin
 Prolactin, as its name suggests, is responsible for lactation. More precisely,
prolactin initiates and maintains milk production by the mammary glands.
 The regulation of secretion of prolactin is complex, involving both prolactin-
releasing hormone (PRH) and prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) from the
hypothalamus.
 The mammary glands must first be acted upon by other hormones such as
estrogen and progesterone, which are secreted in large amounts by the placenta
during pregnancy.
 Then, after delivery of the baby, prolactin secretion increases and milk is
produced. If the mother continues to breast-feed, prolactin levels remain high.
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is one of the gonadotropic hormones; that
is, it has its effects on the gonads: the ovaries or testes.
 FSH is named for one of its functions in women. Within the ovaries are ovarian
follicles that contain potential ova (egg cells).
 FSH stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles; that is, it initiates egg
development in cycles of approximately 28 days.
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 FSH also stimulates secretion of estrogen by the follicle cells. In men, FSH
initiates sperm production within the testes.
 The secretion of FSH is stimulated by the hypothalamus, which produces
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). FSH secretion is decreased by
inhibin, a hormone produced by the ovaries or testes.
Luteinizing Hormone
 Luteinizing hormone (LH) is another gonadotropic hormone.
 In women, LH is responsible for ovulation, the release of a mature ovum from
an ovarian follicle.
 LH then stimulates that follicle to develop into the corpus luteum, which
secretes progesterone, also under the influence of LH.
 In men, LH stimulates the interstitial cells of the testes to secrete testosterone.
 (LH is also called ICSH, interstitial cell stimulating hormone.)
Secretion of LH is also regulated by GnRH from the
hypothalamus.
POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
The two hormones of the posterior pituitary gland are actually produced by the
hypothalamus and simply stored in the posterior pituitary until needed. Their release is
stimulated by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus.
Antidiuretic Hormone
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also called vasopressin) increases the
reabsorption of water by kidney tubules, which decreases the amount of urine
formed.
 The water is reabsorbed into the blood, so as urinary output is decreased, blood
volume is increased, which helps maintain normal blood pressure.
 ADH also decreases sweating, but the amount of water conserved is much less
than that conserved by the kidneys.
The stimulus for secretion of ADH is decreased water
content of the body.
 If too much water is lost through sweating or diarrhea, for example,
osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect the increased “saltiness” of body
fluids.
 The hypothalamus then transmits impulses to the posterior pituitary to
increase the secretion of ADH and decrease the loss of more water in urine.
 Any type of dehydration stimulates the secretion of ADH to conserve body
water. In the case of severe hemorrhage, ADH is released in large amounts and
will also cause vasoconstriction, especially in arterioles, which will help to raise
or at least maintain blood pressure.
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 This function gives ADH its other name, vasopressin. Ingestion of alcohol
inhibits the secretion of ADH and
increases urinary output.
 If alcohol intake is excessive and fluid is not replaced, a person will feel thirsty
and dizzy the next morning.
 The thirst is due to the loss of body water, and the dizziness is the result of low
blood pressure.
Oxytocin
 Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy and
stimulates release of milk from the mammary glands.
 As labor begins, the cervix of the uterus is stretched, which generates sensory
impulses to the hypothalamus, which in turn stimulates the posterior pituitary to
release oxytocin.
 Oxytocin then causes strong contractions of the smooth muscle (myometrium)
of the uterus to bring about delivery of the baby and the placenta.
 The secretion of oxytocin is one of the few positive feedback mechanisms
within the body, and the external brake or shutoff of the feedback cycle is
delivery of the baby and the placenta. It has been discovered that the placenta
itself secretes oxytocin at the end of gestation and in an amount far higher than
that from the posterior pituitary gland.
 Research is continuing to determine the exact mechanism and precise role of the
placenta in labor. When a baby is breast-fed, the sucking of the baby stimulates
sensory impulses from the mother’s nipple to the hypothalamus.
 Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary cause the
release of oxytocin, which stimulates contraction of the smooth muscle cells
around the mammary ducts. This release of milk is sometimes called the “milk
let-down” reflex.
 Both ADH and oxytocin are peptide hormones with similar structure, having
nine amino acids each. And both have been found to influence aspects of
behavior such as nurturing and trustfulness.
 Certain brain cells have receptors for vasopressin, and they seem to be
involved in creating the bonds that sustain family life.
 Trust is part of many social encounters such as friendship, school, sports and
games, and buying and selling, as well as family life. These two small hormones
seem to have some influence on us mentally as well as physically
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Concepts and Terms Related to the Endocrine System:

1. Acromegaly is a growth disorder caused by too much growth hormone (GH)
being released by the pituitary gland, leading to excessive growth.
 Over secretion of hGH during childhood. The hormone cannot produce further
lengthening of the long bones because the epiphyseal plates are already closed.
 Results from over - secretion of growth hormone, usually caused by a tumor of
the pituitary. Bones in the hands feet and face enlarge, skin and tongue thicken,
and slurred speech develops.
2. Dwarfism - is a medical or genetic condition that causes someone to be
considerably shorter than an average-sized man or woman. The average height of
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an adult with dwarfism is 4 feet, but dwarfism could apply to an adult who is
4’10” or shorter.
 The term “short stature” is often preferred over “dwarfism” or “dwarf.” The
term “little person” or “little people” is often used, too. “Midget”
3. Gigantism-
 Results from an over - secretion of somatotropin before puberty. Causes
excessive growth of long bones, extreme tallness, decreased sexual development
and at times decreased mental development.
 Gigantism is a serious condition that is nearly always caused by an adenoma, a
tumor of the pituitary gland. Gigantism occurs in patients who had excessive
growth hormone in childhood. The pituitary tumor cells secrete too much growth
hormone (GH), leading to many changes in the body.
4. Diabetes insipidus - is a rare condition that causes your body to make a lot of
urine that is "insipid," or colorless and odorless. Most people pee out 1 to 2
quarts a day. People with diabetes insipidus can pass between 3 and 20 quarts a
day.
 Caused by decreased secretion of vasopressin, preventing water from being
reabsorbed in the kidneys. Symptoms include polyuria, polydipsia,
dehydration, weakness, dry skin.
5. Diabetes mellitus – is caused by decreased secretion of insulin from the
pancreas. Two types, Type I and Type II. Symptoms include polyuria, polydipsia,
polyphagia, glycosuria, weight loss, fatigue, slow healing, vision changes.
6. Type 1 diabetes is a chronic illness characterized by the body’s inability to
produce insulin due to the autoimmune destruction of the beta cells in the
pancreas. Although onset frequently occurs in childhood, the disease can also
develop in adults. Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, usually occurs early in
life, is more severe and requires insulin.
7. Type 2 diabetes mellitus consists of an array of dysfunctions characterized by
hyperglycemia and resulting from the combination of resistance to insulin action,
inadequate insulin secretion, and excessive or inappropriate glucagon secretion.
Mature onset form of DM. Frequently occurs due to obesity and is controlled
with diet and/or oral hypoglycemic medications.
8. Goiter- is an abnormal enlargement of your thyroid gland. Your thyroid is a
butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of your neck just below your Adam's
apple. Although goiters are usually painless, a large goiter can cause a cough and
make it difficult for you to swallow or breathe.
 Iodine deficiency is the main cause of goiters. Iodine is essential to helping your
thyroid produce thyroid hormones. when you do not have enough iodine, the
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thyroid works extra hard to make thyroid hormone, causing the gland to grow
larger.
 Other causes include the following:
9. Graves’ disease
Graves’ disease occurs when your thyroid produces more thyroid hormone than
normal, which is known as hyperthyroidism. The excessive production of
hormones makes the thyroid increase in size.
 Severe form of hyperthyroidism, more common in women than men.
Symptoms include tense facial expression, protruding eyeballs, nervous
irritability, emotional instability, tachycardia, increased appetite with weight loss
and diarrhea.
 Hyperthyroidism- is an overactivity of the thyroid gland. Symptoms include
extreme nervousness, tremors, irritability, rapid pulse, weight loss, hypertension.
 Hypothyroidism - Underactivity of the thyroid gland
 Cretinism - Form of hypothyroidism, develops in infancy or early childhood and
results in a lack of mental and physical growth, leading to mental retardation and
abnormal dwarfed stature
10. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
When you have Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, also known as Hashimoto’s
thyroiditis, it predisposes thyroid to not being able to produce enough thyroid
hormone, causing hypothyroidism.
 The low thyroid hormone causes the pituitary gland to make more thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH), which causes the thyroid to enlarge.
 Inflammation
Some people develop thyroiditis, an inflammation of the thyroid that can cause a
goiter. This is different than Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. One example is viral
thyroiditis
 Nodules
Solid or fluid-containing cysts may appear on the thyroid and cause it to swell.
These nodules are often noncancerous.
 Thyroid cancer
Cancer may affect the thyroid, which causes swelling on one side of the gland.
Thyroid cancer isn’t as common as the formation of benign nodules.
 Pregnancy
Being pregnant can sometimes cause the thyroid to become larger.
 Colloid goiter (endemic)
A colloid goiter develops from the lack of iodine, a mineral essential to the
production of thyroid hormones. People who get this type of goiter usually live in
areas where iodine is scarce.
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 Nontoxic goiter (sporadic)
The cause of a nontoxic goiter is usually unknown, though it may be caused by
medications like lithium. Lithium is used to treat mood disorders such as bipolar
disorder.
Nontoxic goiters don’t affect the production of thyroid hormone, and thyroid
function is healthy. They’re also benign.
 Toxic nodular or multinodular goiter
This type of goiter forms one or more small nodules as it enlarges. The nodules
produce their own thyroid hormone, causing hyperthyroidism. It generally forms
as an extension of a simple goiter.
Who is at risk for a goiter? You may be at risk for a goiter if you:
 Have a family history of thyroid cancer, nodules, and other problems that affect
the thyroid.
 Don’t get enough iodine in your diet.
 Have a condition that decreases the iodine in your body.
 Are female. Women have a higher risk for goiter than men.
 Are over the age of 40. Aging may affect the health of your thyroid.
 Are pregnant or experiencing menopause. These risk factors are not easily
understood, but pregnancy and menopause may trigger problems in the thyroid.
 Have radiation therapy in the neck or chest area. Radiation may change the way
your thyroid functions.
How is a goiter treated?
Your doctor will decide on a course of treatment based on the size and condition of your
goiter, and symptoms associated with it. Treatment is also based on health problems that
contribute to the goiter.
 Medications
If you have hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism, medications to treat these
conditions may be enough to shrink a goiter. Medications (corticosteroids) to
reduce your inflammation may be used if you have thyroiditis.
 Surgeries
Surgical removal of your thyroid, known as thyroidectomy, is an option if yours
grows too large or doesn’t respond to medication therapy.
 Radioactive iodine
In people with toxic multinodular goiters, radioactive iodine (RAI) may be
necessary. The RAI is ingested orally, and then travels to your thyroid through
your blood, where it destroys the overactive thyroid tissue.
 Home care
Depending on your type of goiter, you may need to increase or decrease your
iodine intake at home.
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If a goiter is small and does not cause any problems, you may require no
treatment at all.
11. Hyperparathyroidism – is an overactivity of the parathyroid gland. results in
increased calcium in the blood, lethargy, gastro disturbances and calcium
deposits on the walls of vessels and organs. Bones become weak.
12. Hypoparathyroidism – is an underactivity of the parathyroid gland, resulting in
low levels of calcium in the blood.
13. Addison's disease – is a decreased secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal
cortex which interferes with the reabsorption of sodium and water and causes
increased level of potassium in the blood. Symptoms include dehydration,
hypotension, lethargy, weight loss, muscle weakness, yellowish color of the skin,
low blood sugar and edema.
14. Cushing’s syndrome - Results from over secretion of glucocorticoids from the
adrenal cortex. Symptoms include high blood sugar, high blood pressure, muscle
weakness, poor healing, moon face, obesity.
15. Myxedema- is a form of hypothyroidism, symptoms include coarse, dry skin,
slow mental functions, fatigue, weakness, intolerance of cold, weight gain,
edema, and slow pulse.
16. hGH - human growth hormone-stimulates secretion of hormones that stimulate
body growth and metabolism
17. TSH - thyroid-stimulating hormone-stimulates growth of thyroid gland and
secretions of its hormones
18. FSH - follicle-stimulating hormone-stimulates sperm production; stimulates
oocyte production and estrogen secretion
19. LH- luteinizing hormone-stimulates secretion of testosterone; triggers ovulations
and stimulates secretion of estrogen and progesterone
20. PRL - prolactin-stimulates production and secretion of milk
21. ACTH - adrenocorticotropic hormone- stimulates secretion of hormones by
adrenal cortex
22. MSH - melanocyte-stimulating hormone-darkens skin pigmentation
23. ADH - antidiuretic hormone-decreases water loss in urine by returning water to
the blood
24. OT - oxytocin-stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection during suckling
25. T4 - thyroxine-increases metabolism and basal metabolic rate (BMR)
26. T3 - triiodothyronine-increases metabolism and basal metabolic rate (BMR)
27.
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III- Skill/Concept Building Exercises:

A1- Directions: Identify the term being described below. Write
Your answer on the space provided.
_______________1. hGH-human growth hormone: TSH-thyroid- stimulating hormone:
FSH-follicle-stimulating hormone: LH-luteinizing hormone: PRL-prolactin: ACTH-
adrenocorticotropic hormone: MSH-melanocyte stimulating hormone
_______________2. Promotes the maturation of "T" cells for the
immune response
_______________3. Helps to set biological clock
_______________4. Stimulates development of male sex
characteristics; stimulates male sex drive and
regulates sperm production
_______________5. Stimulates development of female sex
characteristics; helps regulate menstrual cycle
_______________6. Increases blood glucose by stimulating liver
breakdown glycogen into glucose
_______________7. Decreases blood glucose levels by transporting
glucose into body cells
_______________8. Promotes fight or flight response
_______________9. Insignificant in males; increases sex drive in
Females
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_______________10. Increases resistance to stress, increases blood
glucose levels and decreases inflammation
_______________11. decreases sodium and water loss in urine by
returning sodium and water to the blood
cortisol
_______________12. Parathyroid hormone-increases blood calcium
levels by stimulating osteoclasts to break down
bone matrix
_______________13. Decreases blood calcium levels by inhibiting
osteoclasts
_______________14. Produces and secretes several peptide
hormones that regulate many physiological
processes including stress, growth, and
reproduction
_______________15. This part of the pituitary does not produce
hormones, but stores and releases oxytocin and
ADH
_______________16. A gland that secretes thyroxine (T4),
triiodothyronine (T3), and calcitonin
_______________17. A gland that produces aldosterone, cortisol,
and androgens
_______________18. Hormone that stimulates sperm production:
stimulates oocyte production and estrogen
secretion
_______________19. Hormone that stimulates secretion of
Testosterone: triggers ovulations and stimulates
secretion of estrogen and progesterone
_______________20. Hormone that decreases water loss in urine by
returning water to the blood
_______________21. Hormone that stimulates uterine contractions
and milk ejection during suckling
_______________22. Gland that produces epinephrine,
and norepinephrine (NE)
_____________23. Hormone that stimulates production and
secretion of milk
_____________24. Results from over secretion of growth hormone,
usually caused by a tumor of the pituitary. Bones
in the hands feet and face enlarge, skin and
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tongue thicken and slurred speech develops
_____________25. Caused by decreased secretion of vasopressin,
preventing water from being reabsorbed in the
kidneys. Symptoms include polyuria, polydipsia,
dehydration, weakness, dry skin
_____________26. Results from an over secretion of somatotropin
before puberty. Causes excessive growth of long
bones, extreme tallness, decreased sexual
development and at times decreased mental
development
_____________27. Caused by decreased secretion of insulin from
the pancreas. Symptoms include polyuria,
polydipsia, polyphagia, glycosuria, weight loss,
fatigue, slow healing, vision changes.
_____________28. Results from over secretion of glucocorticoids
from the adrenal cortex. Symptoms include high
blood sugar, high blood pressure, muscle
weakness, poor healing, moon face, & obesity
_____________29. Mature onset form of DM. Frequently occurs due
to obesity and is controlled with diet and/or oral
hypoglycemic medications
_____________30. Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, usually
occurs early in life, is more severe and requires
insulin
_____________31. Results from an under secretion of somatotropin,
characterized by a small body size, short
extremities, and lack of sexual development
_____________32. Overactivity of the thyroid gland. Symptoms
include extreme nervousness, tremors, irritability,
rapid pulse, weight loss, hypertension
_____________33. Severe form of hyperthyroidism, more common in
women than men. Symptoms include tense facial
expression, protruding eyeballs, nervous
irritability, emotional instability, tachycardia,
increased appetite with weight loss and
diarrhea
_____________34. Form of hypothyroidism, symptoms include
coarse, dry skin, slow mental functions, fatigue,
weakness, intolerance of cold, weight gain,
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edema, and slow pulse
_____________35. Underactivity of the parathyroid gland, resulting
in low levels of calcium in the blood
_____________36. Decreased secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex which
interferes with the reabsorption of sodium and water and causes increased level of
potassium in the blood Symptoms include dehydration, hypotension, lethargy, weight
loss, muscle weakness, yellowish color of the skin, low blood sugar and edema
_____________37. Overactivity of the parathyroid gland. results in increased calcium in
the blood, lethargy, gastro disturbances and calcium deposits on the walls of vessels and
organs. Bones become weak
_____________38. Form of hypothyroidism, develops in infancy or early childhood and
results in a lack of mental and physical growth, leading to mental retardation and
abnormal dwarfed stature
_____________39. A steroid hormone secreted by the interstitial cells of the testes; the
stimulus for secretion is LH from the anterior pituitary gland
_____________40. This diagnostic examination is usually done when your thyroid level
is elevated. The scan shows the size and condition of your goiter, overactivity of some
parts or whole thyroid
_____________41. Hormone that signals bone marrow
_____________42. Controls other glands in the body by secreting
hormones that either turn them on or off
_____________43. Connects pituitary gland to the ventral portion of the brain. Sends
releasing factors or inhibitory factors to the pituitary gland by direct blood vessels
_____________44. If levels of a particular hormone are low in the blood the
hypothalamus senses this and tells the pituitary to send out releasing factors which turn
on the gland that makes that particular hormone
_____________45. If hormone levels are found to be too high the hypothalamus tells the
pituitary to send out inhibitory factors which tell the gland that makes the hormone to
stop producing so much
_____________46. Anterior lobe of the pituitary gland that produces
7 hormones
_____________47. Posterior lobe of the pituitary gland that
produces 2 hormones
_____________48. Stimulates growth of body cells, especially bone and muscle. Causes
protein synthesis and prevents protein breakdown. Increases milk production in cattle
_____________49. Enlargement of thyroid. Due to excessive stimulation of thyroid
gland by pituitary due to iodine deficiency. Due to tumor, due to excess iodine in diet.
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_____________50. Gland on the top of the brain. Makes melatonin at night. Helpful in
nocturnal (especially reptiles) animals for night activity. Decreases gonad activity in
winter.
A2 – Directions: Match the descriptions above with the terms
inside the box below. Write only the letter of the
correct answer on the blank.
______1. Secretes insulin and glucagon, which regulate the level
of sugars in the blood
______2. Signals the immune system to produce cells to fight
Infections
______3. Regulates the level of calcium in the blood
______4. Controls how the body uses energy
______5. Regulates body functions, controls other endocrine
glands, and causes growth
______6. In males; responsible for testosterone and producing
sperm cells for reproduction
______7. In females, are responsible for releasing estrogen and
producing egg cells for reproduction
______8. Secretes insulin and glucagon, which regulate the level
of sugars in the blood
______9. Releases hormones that allow the body to respond
quickly to stress
______10. Endocrine tissue that secrete chemical messages
______11. Female sex organ, located in the pelvis, that produces
estrogen and progesterone
______12. Produces atriopeptin that reduces blood volume and
pressure and helps regulate fluid balance
______13. Makes hormones that stimulate production or release of
enzymes that aid digestion
______14. Releases the hormone gastrin that stimulates other
glands to increase their output
______15. Secretes erythropoietin, which stimulate production of
red blood cells in bone marrow
______16. Produces hormones involved in the development of
white blood cells
______17. Produces growth hormone, thyrotropin, corticotrophin,
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gonadotrophin, prolactin inhibitory factor, oxytocin
______18. Produces sex cells
______19. Limbic system component that regulates hunger, body
temperature and other functions (homeostasis)
______20. Regulates the level of sugar in the blood
______21. Gland located near the heart; it aids in the body's
defense against infection by making antibodies
______22. Located in the center of the brain, functioning to
secrete melatonin and serotonin
________23. Produces hormones: Epinephrine, Corticosteroids,
and norepinephrine (fight or flight)
________24. Decreases blood sugar levels (pancreas)
________25. Increases blood sugar levels
________26. Levels peak at night and make us drowsy, receives
input from visual pathway, hypothalamus has large
supply, may play a role in the integrating process
________27. Decreases blood calcium levels, works
antagonistically against the parathyroid hormone
(thyroid)
________28. Stimulates uterine contraction during childbirth and
milk ejection during lactation (Posterior)
________29. Stimulates breast development and maintains
lactation during childbirth (Anterior) (Not Tropic)
________30. Second major controlling system in the body
A. Endocrine H. Pancreas P. Stomach
system I. Thymus Q. Intestine
B. Prolactin J. Parathyroid R. Heart
C. Insulin K. Thyroid S. Adrenal glands
D. Glucagon L. Pituitary T. Endocrine glands
E. Melatonin M. Testes U. Hypothalamus
F. Calcitonin N. Ovaries V. Gonads
G. Oxytocin O. Kidney W. Pineal gland
X. Adrenal gland
A3- Directions: Identify the right term or words that will correspond
to the given descriptions below. Write your answer
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on the blank.
_____________ 1. Hormone secreted by the pineal gland; acts as
a neurotransmitter and vasoconstrictor that
stimulate smooth muscle contraction and inhibits
gastric secretion
_____________2. Hormone secreted by the pineal gland; it is
secreted directly into cerebrospinal fluid
_____________3. An endocrine gland located in the epithalamus
of the diencephalon that produces the hormone
melatonin
_____________4. Hormone secreted by the thymus gland that
causes the production of T lymphocytes
_____________5. A bilobed mass of tissue found in the
mediastinum behind the sternum between the
two lungs; this gland is most important early in life:
critical in the development of the immune system
_____________6. Female hormones; development of the female
reproductive structure, secondary female
characteristics, menstrual cycle control
_____________7. The principal male sex hormone; responsible for
the development of the male reproductive
structure, enlargement of testes and penis (at
puberty), secondary male characteristics (facial
and chest hair, deepening of the voice, muscular
development
_____________8. Endocrine portion of the pancreas; produce
hormones insulin and glucagon which regulate
blood glucose levels
_____________9. Steroid closely related to cortisol given to reduce
Inflammation
_____________10. Glucocorticoid hormone; hormone that
stimulates the liver to synthesize glucose from
circulating amino acids; the middle layer of the
adrenal cortex secrets it
_____________11. Hormone that regulates sodium reabsorption
and potassium excretion by the kidneys
34BWS – OMNI
_____________12. Outer part of the adrenal gland; makes up the
bulk of the adrenal gland
_____________13. Inner part of the adrenal gland; produces a
large amounts of the hormone adrenaline
(epinephrine) and small amounts of
norepinephrine (noradrenaline) which are
commonly referred to fight-or-flight hormones.
_____________14. Suprarenal, small glands found on top of each
kidney
_____________15. The hormone of the parathyroid gland; inhibits
the activity of osteoblasts and causes osteoclasts
to break down bone matrix tissue, thus releasing
calcium and phosphate ions into the blood
_____________16. Four glands about the size of raisins that are
embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid
gland
_____________17. Hormone secreted by the thyroid that lowers the
calcium and phosphate ion concentration of
the blood
_____________18. A hormone of the thyroid gland that regulates
the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins; contains three iodine atoms
_____________19. A hormone of the thyroid gland that regulates
the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins; contains four iodine atoms
_____________20. Enlargement of the thyroid gland due to an
inadequate amount of iodine in the diet
_____________21. An endocrine gland located along the trachea:
it requires iodine to function properly
_____________22. Stimulates contraction of smooth muscles in the
wall of the uterus; causes contraction of cells in
the mammary glands milk ejection or lactation
_____________23. Vasopressin; maintains the body's water balance
_____________24. Prolactin-stimulates milk production in the
mammary gland following the delivery in
pregnant female
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_____________25. Stimulates ovulation in the ovary and production
of the female sex hormone progesterone, helps
maintain pregnancy; in males, stimulates the
synthesis of testosterone in the testes
_____________26. Stimulates development of the follicles in the
ovaries of females; the production of sperm cells
in males
_____________27. Increases the production of melanin in

melanocytes in the skin, thus causing a
deepening pigmentation or darkening of the skin
_____________28. Stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete its
hormone called cortisol
_____________29. Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce its
hormone, its rate is regulated by the
hypothalamus
_____________30. Stimulates cell metabolism in most tissues of the
body, causing cells to divide and increase in size
_____________31. The major gland of the endocrine system; affect
the functions of many other endocrine glands
(testes, ovaries, the adrenal cortex, the thyroid
gland)
_____________32. Part of the brain that controls secretions from the
pituitary gland
_____________33. Maintaining the body's internal environment
_____________34. Ductless glands that secrete their hormones
directly into the bloodstream
_____________35. Chemical secretion from an endocrine gland
that controls the internal environment of the
body from the cellular level to the organ level of
organization
_____________36. Condition affecting nerves causing muscle
spasm due to a low amount of calcium in
the blood caused by a deficiency of the
parathyroid hormone
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_____________37. A condition characterized by an excess of sugar
in the urine, typically associated with diabetes or
kidney disease
_____________38. Hypersecretion of growth hormone from the
anterior pituitary before puberty, leading to
abnormal overgrowth of body tissues
_____________39. Condition of abnormally small stature, sometimes
resulting from hyposecretion of growth hormone
_____________40. A condition in which the body is unable to
produce enough insulin, the hormone required
for the metabolism of sugar
_____________41. A condition by prolonged exposure to high levels
of cortisol; Too many amounts of corticosteroids
in the blood; May have symptoms of
hyperglycemia, hypertension. Muscular
weakness, it makes the body puffy.
_____________42. A disorder resulting from destruction or
dysfunction of the adrenal cortex resulting in a
deficiency in cortisol, aldosterone, adrenal
androgen and skin pigmentation
_____________43. abnormal enlargement of the extremities (hands
and feet) that is caused by excessive secretion
of growth hormone after puberty
_____________44. Made in pituitary glands, an objective is
nephrons of the kidneys, helps control the
balance of water in the body by causing the
kidneys to reabsorb water
_____________45. A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that
targets the mammary glands stimulating them to
produce breastmilk.
_____________46. A hormone produced by the ovaries which act
with estrogen to bring about the menstrual
cycle.
_____________47. Small pea-like organs that regulate calcium and
phosphate balance in blood, bones, and other
tissues
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_____________48. The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence
of the hypothalamus, this gland regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
_____________49. A hormone that controls imbalances levels of calcium and phosphate
in the blood and tissue fluid; influences levels of excitability; secreted by parathyroids
_____________50. A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine
contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.
A4- Directions: Match the descriptions in column A with the terms or words in Column
B. Write only the letter of the correct answer on the blank.
Column Column B
____1. Excessive fat in the blood A. Acidemia
____2. Excessive potassium in the blood B. Alkalemia
____3. High blood sugar C. Chloremia
____4. Excessive cholesterol in the blood D. Hyperlipidemia
____5. Excessive calcium in the blood E. Hyperkalemia
____6. Good blood sugar
____7. Increased chloride in the blood F. Euglycemia
____8. Abnormal alkalinity of the blood G. Hyperglycemia
____9. Abnormal acidity of the blood H. Hypercalcemia
___10. Abnormal enlargement of the adrenal
gland I. Hyper –
___11. Formation of glucose from Cholesterolemia
noncarbohydrate sources
___12. Breakdown of a sugar in cells to release J. Polydipsia
energy K. Glycopenia
___13. Deficiency of sugar L. Adrenomegaly
___14. Excessive thirst
___15. Excessive eating M.Gluconeogenesis
___16. Excessive urination
Specific chemical messenger that affects N. Glycolysis
___17. the behavior or development of other O. Polyuria
individuals of the same species P. Polyphagia
An organ of the body that secretes one
___18. or more hormones Q. Gland
R. Pheromone
A5- Directions: Read the given situations or questions, then choose

the letter of the correct answer by writing it on the
blank.
38BWS – OMNI
________1. Which is a description of a thyroid scan?
A. CT image of thyroid gland
B. radioimmunoassay of thyroxine in the bloodstream
C. Ultrasound image of the neck
D. Skull x-ray of the brain
E. Administration of radioactive compound and
visualization with a scanner to detect tumors or
nodules
________2. Which is a description of achondroplasia?
A. enlargement of extremities
B. Defective cartilage formation that affects bone
growth
C. Tumor of the sella turcica
D. Abnormal formation of cartilage in an adult
E. Hyperfunctioning of pituitary gland
________3. Which of the following is associated with neuropathy,
nephropathy, and retinopathy
A. Hyperthyroidism
B. Deficient ADH secretion
C. Secondary complications of diabetes mellitus
D. Hypergonadism
E. Panhypopituitarism
________4. Characteristic of type 1 diabetes mellitus?
A. Gradual onset, patient is asymptomatic
B. Ketoacidosis seldom occurs
C. Treatment is diet and oral hypoglycemic agents
D. Little or no insulin produced
E. Usually occurs after age 30
________5. Which is a description of tetany?
A. Constant muscle contraction C. Hypercalcemia
B. Increased bone growth D. Hypokalemia
________6. Exophthalmos is a symptom of which endocrine
disorder?
A. Endemic goiter C. Graves disease
B. Thyroid carcinoma D. Nodular goiter
________7. Which term means enlargement of the thyroid gland?
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A. Hypergonadism C. Goiter
B. Euthyroid D. Hypophyseal enlargement
________8. Thyrotoxicosis; hypersecretion of the thyroid gland
A. Graves disease C. Cushing syndrome
B. Diabetes mellitus D. Acromegaly
________9. Post-puberty hypersecretion of growth hormone from
the anterior pituitary gland
B. Diabetes mellitus D. Acromegaly
________10. Advanced hypothyroidism in adulthood
B. Diabetes mellitus D. Myxedema
________11. A group of symptoms produced by excess of cortisol
from the adrenal cortex
B. Diabetes mellitus D. Myxedema
________12 Insulin deficiency or resistance leads to
hyperglycemia and ketoacidosis
A. Graves disease C. Acromegaly
B. Diabetes mellitus D. Cushing syndrome
________13. What is the term for excessive development of
mammary tissue in a male?
A. Homeostasis C. Galactorrhea
B. Hypogonadism D. Gynecomastia
________14. Which is a description of gonadotropins?
A. Secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland
B. Stimulate the growth of long bones
C. Stimulate glucose uptake in cells
D. Secreted by the testes
________15. Which is a hormone secreted by the ovary and
adrenal cortex?
A. Follicle-stimulating hormone C. Androgens
B. Luteinizing hormone D. Estrogen
________16. Which is an element that is present in thyroxine?
A. Iron B. Calcium C. Vitamin D D. Iodine
________17. Which hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to
40BWS – OMNI
secrete hormones?
A. Growth hormone B. ADH C. ACTH D. Cortisone
________18. Which hormone regulates calcium in the blood and
bones?
A. Parathyroid hormone D. Prolactin
B. Thyroxine E. Prostaglandins
C. Thyroid-stimulating hormone
________19. Which is a hormone secreted by the pancreas?
A. Estrogen B. Insulin C. Vasopressin D. Epinephrine
________20. Which of the following secretes cortisol?
A. Testes C. Adrenal Medulla
B. Ovaries D. Adrenal Cortex
________21. What is another name for the anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland?
A. Hypophysis C. Adenohypophysis
B. Hypothalamus D. Neurohypophysis
________22. What is the function of the thyroid gland?
A. Secretes immunologic substances
B. Secretes thymosin
C. Secretes corticosteroids
D. Secretes thyroid-stimulating hormone
E. Secretes thyroxine
________23. The proper functioning of the body's immune system
depends in part on the activity of the
A. thyroid gland C. parathyroid gland
B. thymus gland D. adrenal gland
________24. Melatonin is secreted by the
A. Pancreas C. pineal gland
B. thymus gland D. pituitary gland
________25. Hormones that influence the secondary sex
characteristics may be produced by
A. pancreas and pineal glands
B. Thyroid and the parathyroid glands
C. thymus and pituitary glands
D. adrenal cortex and reproductive organs
________26. The concentration of sodium and potassium ions in the
41BWS – OMNI
blood and body fluid
A. glucocorticoids C. adrenergic hormones
B. androgens D. mineralcorticoids
________27. The large exocrine and endocrine gland located in
the abdominal cavity is the
A. pineal gland C. pancreas
B. thymus gland D. thyroid gland
________28. The hormones of the adrenal medulla complement
the actions of the
A. Sensory nervous system
B. Central nervous system
C. Sympathetic nervous system
D. External nervous system
________29. Two major portions of the adrenal gland are the
A. Medulla and cortex
B. exocrine and endocrine
C. renal and subrenal
D. posterior and anterior portions
________30. In patients with diabetes mellitus
A. insufficient glucose enters the cells
B. the medulla of the adrenal gland is damaged
C. progesterone is not produced by the placenta
D. the hypothalamus is non – functional
________31. The parathyroid glands are located close to the
A. pancreas C. brain
B. lower abdominal cavity D. larynx
________32. The hormone antagonistic to insulin is
A. FSH B. glucagon C. vasopressin D. estrogen
________33. The symptoms of diabetes mellitus may include all the
following except
A. Frequent urination
B. excess thirst
C. High glucose content of the urine
D. abnormal mineral absorption
________34. Calcitonin and the parathyroid hormone both control
the levels of
42BWS – OMNI
A. pituitary hormone in blood C. thymosin in the blood
B. glucose in the blood D. Calcium in the blood
________35. Grave's disease can result from excess of
A. Calcium in the blood
B. Thyroxin in blood
C. Catecholamines in the respiratory passageway
D. glucagon in the pancreas
________36. Symptoms of cretinism include
A. excessive urination and thirst
B. Electrolyte imbalance in the body
C. stunted growth and thickened facial features
D. depressed calcium absorption in the digestive tract
________37. The thyroid gland is located
A. within the brain C. near the larynx
B. in the lower abdominal cavity D. behind the spleen
_____38. In order for the thyroid gland to produce thyroxin
A. iodine must be available
B. carbohydrate molecules must be available
C. calcium levels must be low D. iron levels must be low
_____39. The hormone responsible for stimulating contractions of
the uterus is known as
A. Insulin B. UCH C. Glucagon D. Oxytocin
_____40. The target tissue of ACTH is the
A. Thymus D. cortex of the adrenal gland
B. Medulla of the adrenal gland
C. Beta cells of the pancreas
_____41. In the female body, the luteinizing hormone
A. stimulates TSH production
B. Regulates mineral metabolism in the body
C. stimulates uterine contractions
D. acts to promote progesterone production
_____42. The neurohypophysis is another name for the
A. Posterior lobe of the pituitary D. the placenta
B. Medulla of the kidney
C. follicle that secretes estrogen's
_____43. The over secretion of HGH in adults may result in the
43BWS – OMNI
condition called
A. diabetes mellitus C. Addison's Disease
B. acromegaly D. Cushing's Disease
_____44. All the following hormones are produces by the anterior
lobe of the pituitary gland except
A. HGH B. TSH C. prolactin D. Insulin
_____45. The Pituitary gland lies in the
A. Abdominal Cavity D. in the tissues of the neck
B. Inferior aspect of the brain
C. Along the femoral artery
_____46. Hormones may consist of all the following except
A. Steroids B. Proteins C. Carbohydrates D. Amines
_____47. Products of the body's endocrine gland are
A. hormones B. Enzymes C. Minerals D. Ions
_____48. A temporary endocrine gland produced during
pregnancy, acts as a link between the mother and the
infant:
A. Pancreas B. Thymus C. Placenta D. Pineal Body
_____49. Which gland is often called the "master gland" of the
body because it produces many hormones that affect
other glands?
A. Adrenal Glands C. Pituitary Gland
B. Parathyroid Glands D. Thyroid Gland
_____50. What are four small glands that are located behind and
attached to the thyroid gland?
A. Parathyroid Glands C. Pituitary Gland
B. Adrenal Glands D. Thyroid Gland
_____51. These glands are frequently called the suprarenal glands
because one is located above each kidney:
A. Parathyroid Glands C. Adrenal Glands
B. Pituitary Gland D. Thyroid Gland
_____52. This disease caused by decreased secretion of
aldosterone on the part of the adrenal cortex. This
interferes with the reabsorption of sodium and water and
causes an increased liver of potassium in the blood:
A. Graves' Disease C. Cushing's Syndrome
44BWS – OMNI
B. Addison's Disease D. Goiter
_____53. A fish shaped organ located behind the stomach. An
endocrine and exocrine gland:
A. Pancreas B. Thymus C. Placenta D. Pineal Body
_____54. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is synthesized in the
hypothalamus and is released at the ...
A. infundibulum C. neurohypophysis
B. anterior pituitary D. pars intermedia
_____55. Which one of these hormones has the greatest effect on
behavior?
A. Insulin C. Sex hormones
B. Calcitonin D. Growth hormone
_____56. Endocrine glands differ from exocrine glands in……..
A. the length of their effect D. all of these
B. their means of transport C. that one has local effects
IV- References:
1. The Short Textbook of Medical Microbiology Including
Parasitology
by: Satish Gupte
2. Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology
by: Valerie C. Scanlon
3. An Introduction to Microbiology
by: Tortora
4. Other Internet Sources
__________________ _______________________________
Date Accomplished: Parent’s Printed Name & Signature
45BWS – OMNI
Ephesians 2:8-9
King James Version
For by grace are ye saved through faith;

and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of God:
Not of works, lest any man should boast.
1.) Growth Hormone (GH)

2. Goiter
3. pineal body
4. Cretinism
5. Testosterone
6. Blood Tests NOT SURE
7. Type 1 diabetes
8. Growth hormone deficiency (GHD), also known as dwarfism or pituitary
dwarfism NOT SURE
9. Hyperthyroidism
10. Follicle-stimulating hormone
11. Luteinizing hormone
12. Antidiuretic hormone
13. Testosterone
14. Estrogen
15. Glucagon
16. Hypothalamus
17. Positive feedback
18. Negative feedback
19. Graves’ disease
20. acromegaly
46BWS – OMNI
21. Diabetes insipidus
47BWS – OMNI

HAPL4 - HUMAN ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY - MODULE 4 & 5

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HAPL4 - HUMAN ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY - MODULE 4 & 5

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Human Anatomy and Physiology A.Y.

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

Concepts and Terms Related to the Endocrine System:

III- Skill/Concept Building Exercises:

_____________27. Increases the production of melanin in

A5- Directions: Read the given situations or questions, then choose

For by grace are ye saved through faith;

1.) Growth Hormone (GH)

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