Anaphy

Endocrine system — a major control system of the body; composed of a series

of ductless glands that secrete their products directly into the blood
• Works through the action of hormones to control growth and development,
metabolism, reproduction, and body defense.

Chemistry of Hormones

Hormones are chemical substances secreted by endocrine cells into the

extracellular fluids that regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in the
body.
Although the body produces many different hor-mones, nearly all of them can
be classified chemically as either amino acid-based molecules (including
proteins, peptides, and amines) or steroids. Steroid hormones (made from
choles-terol) include the sex hormones made by the gonads (ovaries and
testes) and the hormones produced by the adrenal cortex.
• Prostaglandins are locally acting lipids. Prostaglandins are made from
highly active lipids released from nearly all cell membranes.

Hormone Action
• Hormones alter the metabolic activities of their target cells or target organs
by turning something on or off, opening or closing ion chan-nels, or activating
or inactivating enzymes.
• Amino acid-based hormones (except thyroid hormone) act through second
messengers.
• Steroid hormones can work by direct gene activation or via
second messenger.
• The ability of a target organ to respond to a hormone requires the presence
of receptors to the hormone in or on its cells to which the hormone binds.

Stimuli for control of hormone release

• Hormonal stimulus—a hormone stimulates another organ to release

its hormones.
• Humoral stimulus—a blood level of something stimulates a hormone to
be released.
• Neural stimulus—direct stimulation by sympathetic neurons signal
hormone release.
• Negative feedback is important in regulating blood hormone levels.

The Major Endocrine Organs

Pituitary Gland
• The pituitary gland hangs from the hypothalamus of the brain by a stalk
and is enclosed by bone.
• Releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones made by the hypothalamus
regulate release of hormones made by the anterior pituitary.
• The hypothalamus also makes two hormones that are transported along the
axons of the hypothalamic neurosecretory cells to the posterior pituitary for
storage and later release.
• The posterior pituitary is neural tissue that stores and releases
hypothalamic hormones on command.
• Oxytocin: Stimulates powerful uterine contractions and causes milk
ejection in nursing women.
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Causes kidney tubule cells to reabsorb and
conserve body water and increases blood pressure by constricting blood
vessels (also called vasopressin).
• Hyposecretion of ADH leads to diabetes insipidus.