MTY1102 Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Salinas, Roeisa A.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Gross Anatomy & Basic Function of Endocrine

Glands
Functional Anatomy of the Endocrine Glands
PITUITARY GLAND (hypophysis)
• 2nd major control system of body
• Coordinate and integrate body activities • in the sella turcica of sphenoid bone
• Hormone = Greek “to arouse” • 2 lobes: Adenohypophysis (APG) &
• Target Organs – respond to particular hormone Neurohypophysis (PPG) + infundibulum
• Cells have nuclei, mitochondria, ER, Golgi
bodies, secretory vesicles
4 main chemical groups that act as hormones:
1. Protein & glycoprotein molecules – insulin, GH,
PTH
2. Small peptide molecules – vasopressin, prods of
enteroendocrine cells
3. AA derivatives – thyroxine, adrenaline/epi,
noradrenaline/nore
4. Steroids from cholesterol – adrenal cortical
hormones, ovarian/testicular hormones
• Endocrine function – anterior P.G., thyroid,
adrenals, parathyroids
• Endo & Exocrine function – pancreas and Anterior Pituitary Gland (Adenohypophysis)
gonads • Epithelial upgrowth from roof of primitive oral
• Both gland types are derived from epithelium cavity – Rathke’s pouch (R’sP)
• Endocrine glands (EnG) – release hormones in • Contain a cleft/group of cyst-like spaces w/c
ECF/blood represent vestigial lumen of R’sP
• Exocrine glands (ExG) – release at body • Remnant of R’sP divides major part of APG from
surface/ducts thin zone of tissue, between APG & PPG – pars
intermedia
• Extension surrounds the neural stalk – pars
tuberalis
Posterior Pituitary Gland (Neurohypophysis/pars
nervosa)
• Downgrowth of nervous tissue from
hypothalamus, joined by pituitary stalk –
infundibulum
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones:
• Target organ is another endoc. gland; secrete
hormone in response to stimulation
• “master gland” – controls activity of many other
endoc. Gland
1. Gonadotropins – regulate gamete production &
hormonal activity (ovaries/testes)
o Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
o Luteinizing hormone (LH)
2. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
endocrine activity of adrenal cortex
3. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) – influence
growth and activity of thyroid gland
2 hormones not directly involved in EnG regulation:
4. Growth Hormone (GH) – determine body size,
growth of muscle/long bones
5. Prolactin (PRL) – milk production by breasts
• Ventral hypothalamic hormones control
production/secretion of tropic hormones, GH,
PRL
• Hypothalamic hormones reach cells of APG via
hypophyseal portal system (2nd image)
Posterior Pituitary Hormones:
• Not an EnG, does not synthesize hormones
• Storage area for 2 neurohormones transported
to it via axons of neurons in paraventricular &
supraoptic nuclei of hypothalamus
• Cell body (producer, in hypothalamus),
infundibulum (long axon), herring bodies
(ends of PPG, storage of secretory vesicles)
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1. Oxytocin – produced in paraventricular nuclei,
“swift birth”
2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) –
vasopressin/arginine vasopressin, in supraoptic
nuclei; conserve water in distal convoluted tubules
of kidneys & collecting tubules reabsorb water by
sodium
PINEAL GLAND
• Small cone-shaped gland in rood of 3rd ventricle
• Major endo product is melatonin – diurnal
cycle/sleep-wake cycle
• Melatonin - peaks at night/lowest at noon; effect
on reprod. system that prevents precocious
sexual maturation; changing level may affect
biological rhythms: body temp, sleep, appetite
THYROID GLAND
• 2 lobes joined by a central mass – isthmus
• Located in throat, inferior to larynx
• Epithelial downgrowth from fetal tongue
• C cells are from ultimobranchial element of 4th
branchial pouch
– • Also part of normal brain development
• Cretinism – like dwarfism + affected brain,
absence of thyroxine
1. Thyroid hormone (TH) – 2 active hormones,
control rate of body metabolism and cellular
oxidation
o T4 (thyroxine/tetraiodothyronine)
o T3 (triiodothyronine) – more active
2. Calcitonin – released in response to high blood
Ca level
PARATHYROID GLANDS
• Embedded on posterior surface of thyroid gland
• 2 small oval glands on each lobe
• Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) – most
important regulator of calcium balance of blood
• Stimulate kidneys to convert vit D to active D3
form (Calcitriol)
THYMUS
• Bilobed gland in superior thorax, posterior to
sternum, anterior to heart/lungs
• Visible in infant, begins to thin at puberty, almost
invisible at old age
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• Produces families of hormones: thymulin,
thymosin, thymopoietin
• Involved in maturation of T lymphocytes/T cells
and immune response
• Act locally as paracrines (affect nearby cells)
ADRENAL (SUPRARENAL) GLANDS
• At the top of kidneys
• Triangle, “kidney party hats”
• Adrenal medulla develops from neural crest
tissue
• Directly controlled by SNS
• Adrenal medulla – act w/ SNS, fight-or-flight
response
1. Epinephrine – 80%
2. Norepinephrine – 20%
• Adrenal cortex – 3 major groups of steroid
hormones (corticosteroids)
1. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) – zona
glomerulosa, regulate water and electrolyte balance
in ECFs by Na ion reabsorption in kidney tubules
2. Glucocorticoids (cortisol (hydrocortisone),
cortisone, corticosterone) – z. fasciculata, resist
long-term stressors by increasing blood glucose
levels
3. Gonadocorticoids (sex hormones) – z.
reticularis, androgens (male), estrogens (female)
PANCREAS
• Partially behind stomach in abdomen
• EnG and ExG functions
• Produce digestive enzymes, insulin, glucagon
• Pancreatic islets/islets of Langerhans secrete
the hormones
1. Insulin – decrease blood sugar levels, accelerate
transport of glucose in body cells (oxidized for
energy/converted to glycogen or fat for storage);
from alpha cells
2. Glucagon – increase blood sugar level,
stimulates liver to break down glycogen stores to
glucose, synthesize glucose by gluconeogenesis,
release glucose to blood; from beta cells
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THE GONADS
• Ovaries – paired, almond-sized organs in pelvic
cavity, produce female sex cells (ova); EnG and
ExG functions only begin at puberty; 2 steroid
hormone groups
1. Estrogens
- development of secondary sex charac.: maturation
of reprod. system and development of the breasts
- act w/ progesterone to bring cyclic changes of the
uterine lining – menstrual cycle
- prepare mammary gland for lactation
2. Progesterone
- uterine musculature in quiescent state
- Helps prepare breast tissue for lactation
• Testes – paired oval suspended in pouchlike sac
(scrotum) outside pelvic cavity; produce male
sex cells (sperm); EnG and ExG begin at
puberty
1. Testosterone – maturation of reprod. system,
male secondary charac, sexual drive/libido
Microscopic Anatomy of Endocrine Glands
Anterior Pituitary Gland
2 main cells population based on color:
• Chromophils – w/ color
o Basophils – Violet/blue
o Acidophils – orange
Note: Eosinophils - pink
• Chromophobes – w/o color
Other cells involved in secretion:
• Somatotrophs – GH secretion, 50%
• Mammotrophs – lactotrophs, PRL, 20%
• Corticotrophs – secrete ACTH, 20%
MTY1102 Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Salinas, Roeisa A.
• Thyrotrophs – TSH (thyrotrophin), 5% Thyroid Gland
• Gonadotrophs – FSH and LSH, 5% • Follicles – spherical sacs w/ pink-stained
Pars intermedia material (colloid); stored T3 & T4 attached to
protein colloidal material stored in follicles as
• Derived embryologically from R’Sp
thyroglobulin; formed by simple
• Basophilic cells lying in irreg clusters between
cuboidal/squamous epithelial cells that
APG and PPG
synthesize products
• Contain small cystic spaces filled with
eosinophilic material
• Contain secretory granules like corticotrops
• Produce alpha-MSH from POMC at low levels

• Inactive – thyroid epithelial cells are simple

flat/cuboidal cells
• Active – tall and columnar
• Scalloped pale edge of colloid is where the
colloid has been removed from follicle lumen
(bitten off to release stored hormones)
Posterior Pituitary Gland
• Non-myelinated axons of specialized neurons
(neurosecretory activity)
• Cell bodies are in supraoptic (ADH) &
paraventricular nuclei (oxytocin) of
hypothalamus
• Hormones are passed down to axons in
neurosecretory granules, accumulate in
• Parafollicular or C cells – 2nd type of endoc cell
distended terminations of axons where contact
w/ neuroendocrine cells structure; found as
w/ capillaries happen – Herring bodies
scattered cells in the follicle lining/small clumps
• Pituicytes – specialized highly branched glial
in interstices between follicles; secrete
cells, supports axons
calcitonin
MTY1102 Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Salinas, Roeisa A.
Parathyroid Glands - aldosterone secretion is independent of ACTH
control
2 major cell types:
• Chief cells – small w/ round central nuclei and
pale eosinophilic/clear cytoplasm; secrete and
synthesize PTH
• Oxyphil cells – occur in nodules; copious
eosinophilic cytoplasm seen packed with
mitochondria

2. Zona fasciculata – middle and broadest of the

cortical zones; w/ narrow columns and cords of cells,
1 cell thick, separated by fine strands of collagen and
wide-bore capillaries; abundant cytoplasm and pale
staining due to many lipid droplets; abundant
mitochondria and smooth ER
Adrenal (Suprarenal) glands - secretes glucocorticoid hormones (cortisol) w/
• Small, flat endoc glands closely applied to upper many metabolic effects:
pole of each kidney o Raise blood glucose level, increase cellular
2 types with diff functions and origin: synthesis of glycogen
• Adrenal cortex – similar embryological origin to o Increase rate of CHON breakdown and rate
gonads; secrets various steroid hormones; of liberation of lipid from tissue stores
adrenal steroids divided to 3:
o Mineralocorticoids – z.g. - cortisol secretion is controlled by hypothalamus
o Glucocorticoids – z.f. via APG tropic hormone ACTH
o Sex hormones – z.r.
Adrenal glands layers: 3 zonas + top & bottom layer
• Capsule
• Zona glomerulosa (z.g.)
• Zona fasciculata (z.f.)
• Zona reticularis (z.r.)
• Adrenal medulla

3. Zona reticularis – thin, innermost layer, lies next

1. Zona glomerulosa - cells arranged in irreg ovoid
to adrenal medulla; irreg network of branching cords
clusters separated by delicate fibrous trabeculae;
and clusters of glandular cells separated by wide
round nuclei, less cytoplasm than cells in z.f.;
diameter capillaries; cells are smaller than z.f. w/
cytoplasm with many smooth ER and mitochondria
less cytoplasm but darker staining because of fewer
w/ scanty lipid droplets
lipid droplets
- secretes mineralocorticoid hormones
(aldosterone) controlled by the RA system - brown lipofuscin pigment is seen, secretes small
- aldosterone acts directly on renal tubules to quantities of androgens and glucocorticoids
increase Na and water retention
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• Adrenal medulla – similar origin to SNS, highly
specialized add-on of this system; secretes
catecholamine hormones under control of
preganglionic neurons of SNS:
o Adrenaline (epinephrine)
o Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
- clusters of cells w/ granular, faintly basophilic
cytoplasm, w/ many capillaries in their fine
supporting stroma
- acute physical and psychological stresses
initiate the release of these hormones
- released catecholamines act on adrenergic
receptors: heart/BVs, bronchioles, visceral
muscle, skeletal muscle
- adrenaline also has potent metabolic effects
(glycogenolysis)
Endocrine Pancreas
• embryonic epithelium of the pancreatic ducts
consists of both exocrine and endocrine cells
• during development, endocrine cells migrate
from duct system and aggregate around
capillaries = isolated clusters of cells – islets of
Langerhans
• main secretory products:
1. Insulin – promotes uptake of glucose by most
cells (liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue)
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2. Glucagon – metabolic effects that oppose insulin
Other cells present in the islets:
• Somatostatin – released by delta cells
• Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)
• Pancreatic polypeptide (PP)
Enterochromaffin (EC) Cells:
• Motilin
• 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT, serotonin)
• Substance P
• Islet of Langerhans – groups of up to 3000
secretory cells supported by a fine collagenous
network w/ fenestrated (tiny openings/pores)
capillary; delicate capsule surrounds each islet;
cells are small w/pale-stained granular
cytoplasm
- Insulin-producing beta cells over 60%
distributed in islet
- Glucagon-producing alpha cells about
25% arranged around periphery
Pineal Gland
2 main cell types:
• Pinealocytes (pineal chief cells) – highly
modified neurons in clusters and cords
surrounded by fenestrated capillaries; round
nuclei w/ prominent nucleoli and granular
cytoplasm; cytoplasmic granules w/ melatonin
and precursor 5-HT
• Neuroglial cells – like astrocytes of CNS;
dispersed between clusters of pinealocytes and
in association w/ capillaries
MTY1102 Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Salinas, Roeisa A.