Module 5: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Hypothalamo -hypophyseal

portal system
Nervous System: short term effects

Endocrine System:
GH (somatotropin)—growth of bones &
- most important of control system tissues
along with Nervous System.
- Secrets substances which is - Target tissue: most
hormone to plasma or blood. - Functions: stimulates growth of
bones, muscles and organs
Exocrine System: hollow organs and - Abnormalities:
ducts ^ GH= gigantism
Hypothalamus v GH= dwarfism

 Important autonomic nervous TSH (thyrotropin)— thyroid glands

system
 ‘’master control center’’
 base of the brain, anterior portion
of diencephalon, below the
thalamus
 Nuclei- several group of neurons
 Hypophysis- stalk-like
infundibulum connects
hypothalamus to pituitary gland
(enlarges when there is hypersecretion,
vice versa)
- Target tissue: thyroid gland
- Function: regulates thyroid gland
secretion
- Abnormalities:
^ TSH: large thyroid gland
v TSH: shrink thyroid gland

Pituitary Gland (hypophysis)

 A small gland pea size ‘’MASTER

GLAND’’
 Sits in HYPOPHYSIAL FOSSA of
SPHENOID BONE
 releasing (stimulating) hormones
—stimulate the production and
secretion of a specific hormone.

 Inhibiting hormones: decrease

secretion of a spec. AP hormone

Parts of

- Anterior pituitary (adenophysis)-

connected to hypothalamus by
blood vessels network known as
LHI (luteinizing)—sexual function and
production. of the sex hormones;
Females
- Target tissue: ovaries
- Function: promotes ovulation
estrogen, progesterone and
Male
- Target tissue: testes
- Function: sperm production &
testosterone
FSH (gonadotropic)
Females
- Target tissue: follicle in ovaries
- Function: follicle maturation and
estrogen secretion
Male
- Target tissue: seminiferous
tubules (testes)
- Function: sperm production
Prolactin—
- Target tissues: mammary glands
and ovaries
- Functions: milk prod. in women
(mammary glands)
Melanocytes- melanin production of
skin
- Target tissue: melanocytes in the
skin
- Function: stimulate melanin
production in melanocytes
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic)—
stimulates the adrenal glands to prod.
steroid hormones
- Target tissue: cells of adrenal
cortex
- Functions: stimulate production
of certain corticosteroids
Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
connected to hypothalamus by neurons
that from the Hypothalamo
-hypophysial tract
- no hormone of its own rather
neurosecretory cells 
- Two hormones (neuropeptydes)
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin)
 acts on the kidneys to increase
water retention from renal tubules 
 acts as constrict blood vessels 
Target tissue: kidneys
Functions: conserve water
Abnormalities: Diabetes insipidus
- Low ADH
- Kidneys to produce large amounts of
dilute urine
Oxytocin 
 causes smooth muscle contraction
in both male and female
reproductive tracts
 stimulates milk ejection by the
 lactating mammary gland Thyroid Hormone Disorders

Target tissue: uterus and mammary gland Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism

Functions: increase uterine contraction slower fast metabolism
during labor and milk production metabolism
weight gain, weight loss and
reduced appetite, greater appetite
For example thyrotropin-releasing hormone fatigue
secreted by the hypothalamus stimulates low temp and nervousness
thyrotropic cells of the anterior pituitary to pulse
increase secretion of thyroid stimulating dry cold skin high temp and
hormone which then regulates activity of the pulse
thyroid gland  myxedema: warm flush skin
severe form in
that are transparent to the posterior pituitary adults
by hypothalamic hypophysial tract 
These hormones are stored in nerve
cretinism in Grave’s (Robert
terminals in the posterior pituitary and infants (severely James Grave)
released into the blood upon simulation of stunted physical & Disease
the axons mental growth
owing to
untreated
Thyroid Glands congenital
- Made up of 2 lobes connected by a deficiency of
narrow band balled isthmus thyroid hormone)
- one of the largest glands and
requires iodine to function
- Highly vascular
- Regulate metabolism in the body
- TSH from APG stimulates thyroid
gland to secrete thyroid hormone
Thyroid hormones secreted by follicular
cells:

- Target tissues: most

- Functions: regulates metabolic
rates and is needed for growth
Calcitonin secreted by parafollicular cells:
Target tissue: bone and some other
tissues
Function: reduce blood calcium level
when high
  Hormones: Epinephrine
(adrenaline) & Norepinephrine
(noradrenaline)—work rapidly to
Adrenal Glands help body deal with stress and
prod. the ‘fight or flight’ reaction
1. Adrenal Cortex (outer)  Target tissues: heart, blood
vessels, liver, fat cells
 A top the kidneys; surrounds the  Function: increase BP, heart rate,
adrenal medulla pupil dilation (adrenaline rush)
 sitting “hats” on top of kidneys  Maj. DO: Pheochromocytoma
 Steroid hormones (neoplasm charac. by excessive
(corticosteroids): glucocorticoids catecholamine secretion)
(cortisol) and mineralocorticoids
(aldosterone) Pancreas
 Function: maintains BP,
 around stomach and small
metabolism, levels of estrogen and
testosterone intestine
 Hormones: Insulin and Glucagon
 Target tissues: kidneys
 Maj. DO: Addison’s and Cushing’s —secreted by the pancreatic
Disease islets/Islets of Langerhans
 Function: digestion of enzymes,
Glucocorticoids: helps control cell regulate blood glucose levels
metabolism & reduces stress  Target tissues: liver, adipose
tissue, skeletal muscle
Cortisol (released by glucocorticoids):  Maj. DO: hypo- & hyper-glycemia,
speeds up the breakdown of fat and diabetes mellitus
protein for energy use; reduces  Islets—3 cell types, each of which
inflammatory response secretes  separate hormone
 Alpha cells: secrete glucagon
Androgens
 Beta cells: secrete insulin
- Target tissue: most  Delta cells: secrete somatostatin
- Functions: (GH)
o Males; secondary sexual
Insulin—reduces blood glucose levels by
characteristics stimulating the cells to take up glucose
o Females: sex drive and the liver to store glucose as glycogen
Mineralocorticoids: ctrl. levels of (liver)
sodium and potassium in the blood  Maj. DO: hypo- & hyper-glycemia,
Aldosterone: regulates salt and water diabetes mellitus
levels in the body; effect on BP *After a meal, glucose levels are high and
2. Adrenal Medulla insulin is secreted. The extra glucose are
stored in the liver as glycogen.
 atop the kidneys and covered by
adrenal cortex Glucagon—increases blood glucose levels
and stimulates liver to break down
glycogen (stored glucose) and release
glucose into the bloodstream.

 Target tissues: liver

 Maj. DO: diabetes mellitus type I & Hormone of reproductive system
II Testes (es-2; is-1)
*In between meals, glucose levels drop  within the scrotum
and glucagon is secreted.  Hormones: testosterone; ICSH
Diabetes mellitus—group of metabolic (interstitial cell stimulating
disorders in which a person’s blood hormone)—LH equivalent for men
glucose level is high due to either  Target tissue: most
inadequate insulin prod. or the inability of  Functions: aids in sperm and
body cells to respond to insulin, or both. reproductive organ development
and function
3 Maj. Symptoms  Maj. DO: testicular cancer

 Polyuria: need to urinate Ovaries

frequently
 Polydipsia: increased thirst and  in the abdomen at the end of the
fluid intake Fallopian tubes
 Polyphagia: increased appetite  Hormones: estrogen and
progesterone
Type I Diabetes  produces oocytes (eggs) for
fertilization
 body does not produce insulin  Target tissue: most
 reg. take insulin injections for a  Functions: involved in uterine and
lifetime and go for reg. blood tests mammary gland development and
and follow a specific diet menstrual cycle
 Maj. DO: ovarian cancer
Type II Diabetes

 90% of diabetes cases (overweight Thymus Gland

& obese are at high risk for this  thoracic cavity below the neck and
type) posterior to the sternum
 body prod. minimal insulin/body’s  Hormone: thymosin
cells do not react to insulin (insulin  Target tissue: immune system
resistance) tissues
 diet, exercise, and taking  Function: responsible for normal
antidiabetic tablets can control the dvpt. of T-lymphocytes & the
progression immune response
 Maj. Disorders: hypo- & hyper-  most active in children & shrinks
glycemia, diabetes mellitus throughout adulthood
 Maj. DO: thymus cancer

At a young age: the thymus (very large)

produce WBCs that protect body tissues
by triggering an immune response against
infectious agents. It decreases in size as
one gets older because other glands in the
body take over its job. By adulthood—size
of the thumb
Pineal Gland (pea-sized)
 bet. pons & sides of thalamus
 hanging from the roof of the 3 rd
ventricle in the posterior
diencephalon
 Hormones: Melatonin  5. General homeostasis including water,
 Target tissues: Hypothalamus
Functions of Melatonin
 regulates sleep patterns; day and
night rhythm
 secretion (24-hr cycle) or the
circadian rhythm—levels are
high at night and falling around
midday, in response to variations
in light levels relayed to the pineal
gland by the hypothalamus
 set the body’s thermal clock
 high melatonin—drowsiness
 Maj. Disorder: insomnia
Cell Secretion Types (class of CM)
1. Autocrine (eicosanoids)—released by
cells and have a local effect on the same
cell type
2. Paracrine (somatostatin)—release by
cells that affect other cell types in close
proximity
3.Neurotransmitters&
Neuromodulators
(epi and acetylcholine)—secreted by
nerve cells, NS function
4. Hormones & Neurohormones
endocrine chemical messenger
(endocrine—epinephrine & insulin)—
secreted into blood and bind to receptor
sites to target organ cells
Hormones control and regulates
1.reproduction (gonads)
2. metabolism and energy balance
3. growth and development
4. body defenses
nutrient and electrolyte balance of the
blood.
10 Functions of the ES
1. Metabolism
2. Ctrl of food intake & digestion
3. Tissue development
4. Ion regulation
5. Water balance
6. Heart rate and BP regulation
7. Ctrl of blood glucose & other nutrients
8. Ctrl of Reproductive functions
9. Uterine contractions & milk release
10. Immune system regulation
 Hormones
 Greek word; hormone (to set into
E N D O C R I N ESYSTEM motion)

Principles of Chemical Communication Chemical Nature of Hormones

Chemical messengers – allow cells to communicate 1. Lipid-Soluble
with each other - Non polar
- Includes steroids and eicosanoids
Secretion – controlled release of chemicals from a - LH, FSH and androgens
cell 2. Water-Soluble
- Includes proteins, peptides, amino
Classes of Chemical Messengers acid
1. Autocrine – stimulates the cell that - Most common
originally secreted it; WBCs during an
infection

2. Paracrine – act locally on nearby cells;

WBCs during allergic reactions
Control of Hormone Secretion
3. Neurotransmitter – activate an adjacent Stimulation/Inhibition of Hormone
cell Release
1. Humoral Stimuli – blood levels of
4. Endocrine – secreted into the chemicals
bloodstream by certain glands and cells 2. Neural Stimuli – nervous system
3. Hormonal Stimuli - hormones
Functions of the Endocrine System (MC3
I2WHUT) Humoral Regulation
1. Metabolism.
2. Control of blood glucose and other STIMULATION
nutrients. 1. In the blood stream direct stimulate
3. Control of reproductive functions.
4. Control of food intake and digestion.
5. Ion regulation.
6. Immune system regulation.
7. Water balance.
8. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation.
9. Uterine contraction and milk release.
10. Tissue development.

Characteristics of the Endocrine System

Endocrine System – composed of endocrine glands
+ endocrine specialized cells

Hormones – chemical messenger that is

secreted into the blood; particular response in Inhibition
target tissue
Usually each of the companion hormones performs an
Target tissues – effectors; specific site; receptor for opposite function. For example,
a specific hormone
to raise blood pressure, the adrenal cortex secretes=
Endocrine – Greek word; endo (within) + krino aldosterone
(secrete)
to lower bp it the heart atria =atrial natriuretic peptide.
Exocrine glands – have ducts that carry their
secretions to the outside of the body

Endocrinology – study of the endocrine system

Neural Regulation
Inhibition
Targets as often as they stimulate
Does not secrete hormone
Hormonal Regulation
1. Neurons in hypothalamus release stimulatory
H (release H) travels in blood to anterior PG
2. Release H stimulate release of H from anterior
travel in blood to target endocrine cell
3. Target endocrine cell secrets H to blood travels
to target and produce response
Inhibition
reduce release of hormone
Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood
A. Negative feedback
 Blood conc. of hormone declines
 More hormone is secreted
 If max. set point is exceeded
 Hormone production is halted
H secretion is inhibited when certain
point is reach
B. Positive feedback
 exemplifies Tropic hormones
stimulate the release of other
hormones
Release CRH (APG)- release ACTH(APG)- effect on
adrenal g
Mechanisms of Action Receptors – H can
stimulate only the cells that have receptor for
that hormone
Receptor site – the portion of each receptor
molecule where a hormone binds
Specificity – tendency of hormones to bind to one
type of receptor
Target tissue – the responding tissue based on the
hormone released
Hormone Classes of Receptors
1. LSH bind to nuclear receptors.
 Interaction with cell DNA to
regulate transcription.
- Protein synthesis
2. WSH bind to
membrane bound
receptors.
 Hormone receptor complex
initiates a response inside the
cell (G proteins, cAMP, protein
kinase).